tihxary  of  t:he  trheolo^ical  ^tminary 

PRINCETON  •  NEW  JERSEY 


PRESENTED  BY 

John  Stuart  Conning,  D.D. 

BM  570  .G58  1920 
Greenstone,  Julius  Hillel, 

1873- 
The  Jewish  religion 


/•>o;,/-./.. 


One  of  the  People  of  the  Book 

(From  a  Bas-Relief  by  Boris  Schatz> 


/- 


THE 
JEWISH  RELIGION 

A  Guide  to  the  Principles  and  Practices  of  Judaism 
for  Parents^  Teachers  and  Laymen 

BY 

JULIUS  H.  GREENSTONE,  Ph.D. 


^} 


PHILADELPHIA 

THE  JEWISH  CHAUTAUQUA  SOCIETY 

1920 


Copyright,  1915,  1920, 
By  the  Jewish  Chautauqua  Society 


PRINTED    BY  PUBLISHERS  PRINi;.NG  COMPANY,   NEW  YORK 


ITnacrlbeO  to  tbe  iTRemor^  of 

Carrie  Bmram  (Greenstone 


PREFACE 

The  present  volume  aims  to  serve  as  a  guide-book 
of  Jewish  belief  and  practice  to  the  teacher,  the  parent 
and  the  average  reader.  It  lays  no  claim  to  scientific 
exactness,  nor  does  it  presume  to  give  a  philosophic 
presentation  of  Jewish  ceremonial  and  belief.  It  is 
intended  primarily  to  be  of  popular  use,  presenting 
the  most  important  principles  and  practices  of  the 
Jewish  religion  in  a  form  that  will  be  attractive  to 
the  student  and  to  the  layman  alike.  I  have  had  in 
mind  especially  the  teacher  who  seeks  guidance  and 
direction  in  his  work  of  teaching  religion.  It  was, 
however,  shown  that  the  book,  in  its  first  edition,  was 
extensively  used  by  parents  and  lay  readers,  and  also 
in  confirmation  classes,  as  well  as  by  teachers.  In 
preparing  this  second  edition,  therefore,  while  many 
of  the  directions  to  the  teacher  have  been  preserved, 
an  efifort  has  been  made  to  widen  its  scope  and  to  make 
its  popular  appeal  even  stronger  than  before.  The 
text  has  been  thoroughly  revised  and,  in  places,  con- 
siderably amplified  and  several  pictures,  illustrative  of 
the  ceremonies  of  Judaism,  have  been  inserted.  These 
changes  and  improvements,  it  is  hoped,  will  add  con- 
siderably to  the  usefulness  and  to  the  attractiveness 
of  the  volume.  An  appendix,  dealing  with  the  cere- 
monies surrounding  birth,  marriage  and  death,  has 
also  been  added. 

With  regard  to  the  religious  point  of  view  followed 
in  these  pages,  I  need  only  repeat  what  was  said  in  the 
preface  to  the  first  edition.  "Without  consciously  sup- 
pressing my  own  conservative  point  of  view,  I  still 
hope  that  I  have  succeeded  in  my  attempt  to  deal 
fairly  and  sympathetically  with  the  many  other  points 


Preface 

of  view  regarding  Jewish  faith  and  practice.  All 
polemics  have  been  studiously  avoided.  I  aimed  es- 
pecially to  give  the  attitude  of  the  great  body  of  Israel 
towards  the  various  principles  of  belief  and  the  many 
ceremonies  of ^  Judaism,  and  the  reason  for  such  an 
attitude."  This  motive  also  guided  me  while  prepar- 
ing the  book  for  the  second  edition.  It  is  my  hope 
that  the  reader,  to  whatever  school  of  thought  he  may 
belong,  will  be  influenced  by  this  book  to  assume  a 
broad,  sympathetic  view  of  Judaism  in  its  various 
aspects  and  forms, 

I  wish  to  repeat  here  my  deep  appreciation  of  the 
many  courtesies  and  kindnesses  extended  to  me  by 
the  Chancellor  of  the  Jewish  Chautauqua  Society,  Dr. 
Henry  Berkowitz,  and  by  the  Dean  of  its  Correspond- 
ence School,  Dr.  William  Rosenau.  I  am  indebted  to 
them  for  many  valuable  suggestions  both  in  diction 
and  in  arrangement  of  material  while  the  book  was 
being  prepared  for  the  press.  I  am  also  grateful  to 
Rabbi  Louis  Feinberg  of  Cincinnati  for  many  cor- 
rections and  suggestions,  of  which  I  gladly  availed 
myself  in  preparing  the  present,  revised  edition. 
Acknowledgments  are  also  due  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  Washington,  to  the  Zion  Centre  of  Har- 
lem, New  York,  and  the  Zionist  Organization,  New 
York,  for  much  appreciated  help  in  obtaining  the 
illustrations. 

Julius  H.  Greenstone. 
Gratz  College,  Philadelphia, 
June  24,  1920. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Preface   v 


Introduction — A    Word  to    Teachers 


1     J^Uao 


I.  The  Sabbath 12 

II.  The  Jewish  Calendar.    The  Festivals 24 

III.  Passover  Zl 

IV.  The  Feast  of  Weeks   (Shabuot) SO 

V.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles    (Sukkot) 60 

VI.  The  Nev^t  Year   (Rosh  ha-Shanah) 74 

VII.  The  Day  of  Atonement  (Yom  ha-Kippurim)  ...    87 

VIII.  The  Minor  Festivals  101 

IX.  The  Synagogue  and  the  School 121 

X.  Public  Worship 134 

XI.  Public  Worship  {Continued)  145 

XII.  Private  Devotion  and  Home  Ceremonies 159 

XIII.  Symbols  and  Rites   170 

XIV.  The  Dietary   Laws— Jewish    Separatism 183 

XV.  The  Jewish  Faith — God  and  Man 196 

XVI.  Sources  of  Judaism — Revelation 213 

XVII.  Sources  of  Judaism — Tradition 230 

XVIII.  Reward  and  Punishment 248 

XIX.  The  Messianic  Hope  263 

Appendix— Religious  L^fe  in  the  Home 283 

Index 295 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

"One  of  the  People  of  the  Book"  Frontispiece 

Bas-Relicf  by  Boris  Schatz 

Facing  page 

Habdalah   Set  20 

sukkot    in  the  synagogue 84 

From  a  Painting  by  L.  Ptlichowski 

Scroll  of  the  Book  of  Esther  (Megillah)   116 

Scroll  of  the  Law  (Sefer  Torah)  Unrolled  148 

Phylacteries   (Tefillin)    and   Bag    180 

The  Blessing    212 

Bas-Relicf  by  Boris  Schata 
The  Ark  of  the  Covenant  and  the  Menorah 244 

From  the  Arch  of  Titus 


INTRODUCTION 

A  Word  to  Teachers  and  Parents 

Object  of  the  Course. — The  primary  purpose  of 
the  Rehgious  School  is  to  develop  the  religious 
sentiment  in  the  hearts  of  the  young  and  to  make 
religion  a  vital  influence  in  their  lives.  All  instruc- 
tion, whatever  other  aims  it  may  have,  must  tend 
toward  this  end — to  strengthen  the  belief  in  God 
and  to  emphasize  the  feeling  of  responsibility 
toward  Him. 

While  the  religious  teaching  in  all  denominations 
has  the  same  general  end  in  view,  the  form  as  well 
as  the  content  of  its  presentation  will  vary  with  the 
peculiar  attitude  of  each  denomination  toward  re- 
ligion and  life,  influenced  by  differences  in  the  pri- 
mary elements  of  religion  as  well  as  by  historic 
events.  The  Jewish  teacher,  with  the  specific  Jew- 
ish point  in  view,  will  proceed  along  entirely  differ- 
ent lines  to  reach  his  goal  from  those  followed  by 
teachers  of  other  creeds.  The  Jewish  conception  of 
the  nature  of  God  and  His  relation  to  the  world,  of 
the  destiny  of  human  life  and  its  relation  to  the  di- 
vine is  distinct  and  quite  different  from  that  held  by 
other  religious  denominations.  It  is  to  elucidate 
this  conception  and  to  assist  the  teacher  in  his  en- 
deavor to  impress  the  growing  generation  with  the 
peculiar  Jewish  outlook  on  life  in  its  relation  to_ 
God  that  these  lessons,  will  aim. 

Dogmas  in  Judaism. — Every  religious  system  has 
developed  certain  fundamental  principles  regarding 
God,  His  attributes  and  His  relation  to  man,  which 
are  known  as  dogmas,  and  a  certain  order  of  cere- 
monies which  serve  as  aids  toward  the  fuller  real- 
ization of  these  dogmas  or  doctrines.    Judaism  also 

1 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

has  its  dogmas  and  observances,  but  the  position 
of  dogma  in  Judaism  is  quite  different  from  that 
which  it  occupies  in  other  religions.  The  number 
of  the  Jewish  articles  of  faith  has  never  been  defi- 
nitely settled,  nor  has  even  their  exact  significance 
been  firmly  established.  Attempts  have  been  made 
time  and  again  to  formulate  a  Jewish  creed,  and  some 
of  these  received  general  recognition,  but  none  en- 
joyed authoritative  sanction.  -  (See  Schechter,  Stud- 
ies in  Judaism,  ch.  VI ;  Abrahams,  Judaism,  chaps. 
Ill  and  IV,  for  a  detailed  discussion  of  this  sub- 
ject.) Judaism  lays  greater  stress  on  conduct  than 
on  faith,  on  character  than  on  dogma,  on  life  than 
on  belief.  "Ye  shall  be  holy;  for  I  the  Lord  your 
God  am  Holy!'*  (Leviticus  19:2)  is  the  keynote  of 
the  Jewish  religion.  Religion,  with  the  Jew,  is 
co-extensive  with  life,  life  consecrated  by  the  divine. 
There  is  nothing  secular  in  Jewish  life,  every  detail 
of  life  is  made  sacred.  What  others  call  good,  the 
Jew  characterizes  as  holy,  while  the  evil  he  regards 
as  sin.  To  live  the  Jewish  life,  to  develop  the  spir- 
itual elements  of  character,  to  hallow  the  every-day 
experiences  of  life,  is  the  essence  of  the  Jewish 
religion.  Dogmas  and  creeds  are  necessary,  cere- 
monies and  observances  are  essential  in  the  preser- 
vation of  a  religious  system,  but  the  consecration 
of  life  is  most  important,  for  it  is  the  goal  toward 
which  everything  else  should  tend.  The  Jewish 
teacher  of  religion  will  therefore  aim  to  make  the 
child  realize  the  sanctity  of  life,  to  make  religion 
a  controlling  element  in  his  every-day  occupation, 
in  accordance  with  Jewish  teachings. 

Arrangement  of  Material. — Since  religious  dog- 
mas are  in  the  main  abstract  and  sometimes  ab- 
struse, it  is  generally  agreed  that  the  actual  teach- 

2 


Introduction 


ing  of  religion  should  commence  rather  with  the 
concrete  ceremonies  and  observances.  Besides,  the 
practice  of  placing  before  the  child  the  concrete  and 
the  specific  first  has  the  support  of  sound  peda- 
gogic law.  The  main  truths  of  Judaism  are  being 
inculcated  in  the  school  from  the  very  first  day  the 
child  enters  it.  Through  story  and  fable,  through 
history  and  prayer,  and,  above  all,  through  the  im- 
perceptible atmosphere  created  by  the  reverent. 
God-fearing  and  pious  teacher,  these  truths  are  con- 
stantl}'  brought  home  to  the  child  and  are  made 
part  of  his  very  nature.  The  presentation  of  reli- 
gious truths  in  a  formal  manner  should  not  be  be- 
gun until  the  child  has  reached  the  higher  grades 
and  is  able  to  understand,  to  analyze  ideas  and  com- 
pare them.  It  is  different  with  the  practices  of 
Judaism.  They  are  concrete  and  specific.  They  are 
also  more  familiar  through  actual  observation  and 
participation.  They  should  therefore  be  presented 
first  in  the  religious  school. 

With  these  practical  considerations  in  mind,  the 
lessons  in  this  course  have  been  arranged.  The 
ceremonies  and  practices  of  Judaism  are  discussed 
first  and  the  principles  and  beliefs  are  given  later. 

Value  of  Ceremonies. — Our  thoughts  and  emo- 
tions constantly  seek  expression  in  word  or  action. 
We  do  not  rest  satisfied  with  an  idea  that  we  con- 
ceive or  a  feeling  that  we  experience  until  we  have 
formulated  the  idea  or  feeling  in  sentence  or  deed, 
until  we  have  given  it  some  concrete  form.  Our 
love  for  parent  or  friend  constantly  clamors  for 
some  tangible  manifestation  in  the  form  of  gift  or 
service.  We  seek  the  occasion  to  show  our  love 
by  deeds  of  kindness,  by  tokens  of  afifection.  The 
intensity  of  the  feeling  is  frequently  measured  by 

3 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

the  self-sacrifice  undergone  in  giving  matecial  ex- 
pression to  it.  Thus,  birthdays,  anniversaries  and 
other  family  celebrations  are  made  occasions  for 
permitting  these  feelings  to  become  interpreted  in 
words  or  actions,  and  no  loving  soul  will  let  such 
an  opportunity  pass  unnoticed. 

This  is  the  psychological  origin  of  the  idea  of 
worship.  We  are  not  satisfied  with  the  feeling  of  a 
belief  in  God,  we  wish  to  give  expression  to  our 
feeling  of  adoration  of  Him.  Special  hours  of  the 
day,  special  days  in  the  year  are  set  aside,  when 
opportunity  is  afforded  us  to  manifest  our  religious 
sentiments  by  means  of  words  or  actions,  when  we 
are  especially  moved  to  worship.  The  nature  of  the 
worship  has  differed  with  the  various  stages  of  civ- 
ilization. At  one  time  men  believed  that  God  would 
be  pleased  if  they  offered  up  a  human  being  or  an 
animal  to  Him ;  now  we  feel  that  He  is  content  with 
an  expression  in  words  of  the  feelings  that  may 
move  a  contrite  heart  or  a  grateful  spirit.  The  un- 
derlying principle  is  the  same,  deeply  rooted  in  the 
heart  of  every  human  being.  Made  up,  as  man  is, 
of  body  and  spirit,  the  spirit  will  always  seek  the 
help  of  the  body,  so  that  it  may  interpret  itself  in 
a  concrete  and  tangible  form.  This  is  true  of  the 
whole  range  of  human  emotions  and  is  recognized 
in  all  social  relations.  The  family,  the  state,  and 
society  generally  developed  peculiar  ceremonies  in 
which  the  social  sentiment  finds  expression. 

Place  of  Ceremonies  in  Judaism. — As  the  "holy 
people,"  the  people  with  whom  religion  meant 
the  consecration  of  life,  the  Jews  have  developed 
an  elaborate  system  of  ceremonies  for  every  occa- 
sion in  life,  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave.  Primarily 
serving  as  a  means  of  expressing  reHgious  senti- 

4 


Introduction 


ments,  these  ceremonies  also  served  many  good  pur- 
poses in  the  preservation  of  Judaism  and  the  Jews. 
They  taught  the  Jews  the  great  lessons  of  self- 
sacrifice  and  self-abnegation ;  they  helped  to  keep 
their  mission  as  the  religious  people  par  excellence 
ever  vivid  before  them ;  they  helped  them  to  keep 
up  their  loyalty  and  courage  in  times  of  greatest 
temptation  and  suffering.  It  was  through  these 
ceremonies  that  the  individuality  of  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple constantly  received  new  emphasis  and  it  was 
especially  due  to  their  influence  that  the  Jews,  al- 
ways a  small  minority,  were  not  swallowed  up  by 
the  great  majority  among  whom  they  lived. 
Through  the  observance  of  these  ceremonies  the 
Jew  was  always  reminded  of  his  peculiar  nature 
and  destiny,  the  great  ideals  of  his  religion  were 
constantly  recalled,  the  great  purposes  of  his  ex- 
istence constantly  emphasized,  so  that  martyrdom 
became  glorious,  suiTering  and  persecution  easily 
endured.  By  the  constant  observance  of  these  cere- 
monies, the  fibre  of  the  Jew  became  hardened,  his 
powers  of  endurance  increased,  and  his  love  for  his 
religion  and  his  God  became  all  pervading. 

Thus,  alongside  of  their  primary  purposes  to 
serve  as  indices  to  some  abstract  truths  and  ideals, 
Jewish  ceremonies  have,  through  long  usage,  be- 
come sacred  and  valuable  in  theinselves.  The  Jew- 
ish people  have  learned  to  look  upon  these  cere- 
monies as  family  heirlooms  and  clung  to  them  with 
filial  piety  and  affection.  If  their  primary  purposes 
were  forgotten  or  no  more  obtained,  they  endeav- 
ored to  give  them  new  meaning  and  new  life.  Even 
such  customs  as  were  admittedly  borrowed  from 
other  peoples  have,  after  long  usage  and  after  they 
have  become  fully  assimilated  with  Jewish  life  and 
received    the   Jewish    stani;),    remained    sacred   and 

5 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jeivish  Religion 

inviolable.  This  was  no  mere  blind  following  "the 
customs  of  the  fathers/'  but  rather  the  deep  affec- 
tion felt  for  everything  that  was  practiced  by  Jews 
and  thereby  became  associated  with  Jewish  life. 
The  consciousness  of  the  Jewish  people  was  always 
regarded  as  the  best  judge  in  deciding  the  value  of 
ceremonies.  Those  that  were  not  readily  assimi- 
lated to  that  consciousness  were  dropped  in  the 
course  of  time  and  no  artificial  means  to  retain 
them  availed  aught ;  others  were  modified  and  ad- 
justed ;  and  others  again  were  retained  in  their  orig- 
inal form — all  because  the  Jewish  people  so  willed 
it.  Numerous  examples  of  each  kind  will  be  cited 
in  the  course  of  these  lessons.  We  need  mention 
here  only  the  institution  of  the  Sabbatical  year  and 
its  modification,  amounting  to  an  abrogation,  made 
by  Hillel  (Prosbul),  and  the  development  of  the 
elaborate  sacrificial  system  into  our  present  mode 
of  worship.  "Catholic  Israel"  may  be  relied  upon 
to  select  and  retain  that  which  is  of  the  greatest 
assistance  to  the  preservation  of  its  existence  and 
to  the  accomplishment  of  its  life-work. 

'"Teacher's  Point  of  View. — It  is,  therefore,  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  the  teacher  who  is  to  pre- 
sent these  ceremonies  to  his  class  should  be  pos- 
sessed of  the  proper  appreciation  and  reverence  for 
them.  He  must  regard  as  sacred  that  which  the 
consciousness  of  the  Jewish  people  considers  sacred. 
Facts  or  conditions  that  obtain  in  a  certain  com- 
munity, or  even  in  a  certain  country,  must  not  be 
allowed  to  exert  an  influence  on  the  proper  appre- 
ciation of  a  ceremony  that  is  still  adhered  to  by  the 
great  mass  of  the  people.  The  teacher  must  be 
especially  on  his  guard  against  the  influence  of  pro- 
vincialism  in  religion.     His   duty  is   not   to   train 

6 


Introduction 


American,  English  or  German  Jews,  but  Jews,  with- 
ouT  any  epithet,  members  of  the  great  cosmopohtan 
body  of  Israel.  Exigencies  of  time  and  place  are 
ephemeral  and  transitory  They  may  be  referred 
to-  they  may  be  recognized  and  explained  e.g.,  the 
pr^sent^state  of  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath ;  but 
must  not  be  permitted  to  influence  the  point  of 
view  of  teacher  or  pupil  regarding  matters  that  are 
vital  to  the  Jews  of  the  world. 

Object  Lessons.— It  is  urged  that  the  teacher  pro- 
vide himself  with  a  collection  of  objects  which  will 
help  in  illustrating  the  lesson  under  consideration. 
The  teacher  must,  however,  be  careful  not  to  create 
the  impression   that  his   collection  is  a  mmiature 
museum  of  archceological  rema  ns  which  are  merely 
of  historic  interest.    A  Mezuzah  is  stil   the  distinct- 
ive mark  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Je\yish  homes 
and  should  be  presented  as  of  present  importance 
fn  the  practice  of  Judaism.     TefiUm  are  still  worn 
by  millions  of  Jews,  and  should  be  explained  not 
as  a  relic  of  bygone  days,  but  as  a  living  factor  in 
the  lives  of  the  Jews  of  today,  no  matter  what  the 
personal  view  of  the  teacher  on  the  value  of  these 
ceremonies   is.     The    same   is   true   --egarding   the 
more  important  institutions  of  Judaism,  about  which 
differences  of  opinion  may  exist.     Not  the  teacher 
nor  even  the  congregation  or  commumty,  but  the 
great  people  of  Israel,  is  the  final  judge  as  to  the 
importance  of  a  ceremony,  and  it  is  this  view  that 
the  teacher  must  present  to  his  pupils    whom  he 
wishes  to  train  to  become  members  of  this  great 
body. 

Division  of  the  Subject.— The  Jewish  Calendar, 
including  the  Sabbath  and  the  Festivals,  and  their 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


observance  in  synagogue  and  home,  will  naturally 
occupy  the  greater  portion  of  these  lessons.  The 
synagogue,  its  origin  and  composition ;  prayer,  both 
public  and  private;  the  home,  with  its  numerous 
observances  and  customs,  will  receive  adequate 
treatment  in  special  lessons.  Finally  the  beliefs  and 
doctrmes  of  our  religion  will  be  presented  and  dis- 
cussed as  they  should  be  given  in  the  higher  grades 
m  a  formal  and  connected  course. 

Plan  of  Lesson.— In  presenting  a  lesson  on  any 
of  the  ceremonies  of  Judaism,  attention  will  be  di- 
rected to  the  following  points,  whenever  possible: 

1.  The  significance  of  the  ceremony. 

2.  Explanation  of  the  ceremony  with  reference 
to  its  origin. 

3.  Details  of  its  observance  according  to  Bible 
and  Talmud. 

4.  Description  of  its  observance  in  Jewish  His- 
tory. 

5.  Effect  of  the  ceremony  on  Jewish  life. 

6.  Illustrations. 

It  is  advised  that  the  teacher,  in  preparing  a 
lesson  for  the  class-room,  also  keep  these  points  in 
mind. 

Bibliography.— It  will  be  necessary  for  the  stu- 
dent to  consult  and,  if  possible,  own  the  following 
books,  to  which  reference  will  be  made  in  the  course 
of  these  lessons: 

The  Bible. 

The  Prayer  Book. 

Authorized  Daily  Prayer  Book  of  the  United  He- 
brew Congregation  of  the  British  Empire,  trans- 
lated by  Rev.  S.  Singer. 

Service  of  the  Synagogue  (Festival),  edited  by 
M.  Davis  and  N.  Adler;  6  volumes. 

8 


Introduction 


(Note:  Teachers  in  Congregational  Schools  will 
do  well  to  compare  these  with  the  prayer  book  used 
in  the  particular  congregation.  Reference  will  be 
made  to  the  Union  Prayer  Book  for  Jewish  Wor- 
ship and  to  Prayers  for  Private  Devotion,  both  ed- 
ited and  published  by  the  Central  Conference  of 
American  Rabbis  and  used  in  many  synagogues  in 
this  country.) 

Joseph,  M.,  Judaism  as  Creed  and  Life. 

Course  Book  on  Jewish  Religion,  issued  by  the 
Jewish  Chautauqua  Society  and  based  on  the  above 
book. 

Friedlander,  M.,  The  Jewish  Religion. 

Kohler,  K.,  Guide  for  Instruction  in  Judaism. 

Joseph,  N.  S.,  Religion,  Natural  and  Revealed. 

Mendes,  H.  P.,  Jewish  Religion  Ethically  Pre- 
sented. 

Greenstone,  J.  H.,  The  Religion  of  Israel. 

Rosenau,  W.,  Jewish  Ceremonial  Institutions  and 
Customs. 

Dembitz,  L.  H.,  Jewish  Services  in  Synagogue 
and  Home. 

Berkowitz,  H.,  Kiddush  or  Sabbath  Sentiment. 

Abrahams,  L,  Judaism. 

Abrahams,  L,  Festival  Studies,  being  Thoughts 
on  the  Jewish  Year. 

The  Passover  Hagadah,  various  editions. 

Free  use  should  be  made  of  the  Jewish  Encyclo- 
pedia, a  copy  of  which  should  be  in  every  Religious 
School  Library. 

RESUME 

To  develop  the  belief  in  God  and  the  feeling  of 
responsibility  toward  Him  is  the  purpose  of  all  re- 
ligious training.     It  is  the  peculiar  Jewish  attitude 

9 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezuish  Religion 


toward  religion  and  life  that  should  receive  empha- 
sis in  the  Jewish  School. 

Consecration  of  life  is  the  keynote  of  Judaism. 
As  a  religious  system,  however,  Judaism  developed 
some  fundamental  principles  of  faith  and  conduct 
— dogmas  and  ceremonies — which  are  essential  in 
the  preservation  of  the  religion. 

Ceremonies  are  primarily  symbols  of  ideas  and 
emotions.  They  are  the  outcome  of  the  natural 
desire  of  man  to  give  concrete  expression  to  his 
feelings  and  thoughts.  Compare  the  numerous  cere- 
monies in  social  and  family  life.  By  constant  usage, 
Jewish  ceremonies  have  acquired  inherent  valued 
because  of  their  becoming  intimately  associated 
with  Jewish  life  and  characteristic  of  it.  The  ''Ke- 
neseth  Israel,^'  the  whole  Jewish  community,  de- 
cides for  itself  as  to  the  comparative  value  of  cer- 
tain ceremonies  and  observances. 

The  teacher  must  therefore  guard  against  pro- 
vincialism and  narrowness  in  deciding  the  value  of 
certain  ceremonies.  He  must  regard  the  feelings 
and  practices  of  the  great  majority  of  Jews  and  not 
merely  of  his  immediate  surroundings.  He  must 
cultivate  the  proper  reverence  and  appreciation  for 
the  ceremonies  of  Judaism  that  are  still  followed  by 
the  great  bulk  of  the  Jewish  people. 


1.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  Jewish  religious 
school? 


QUESTIONS 

purpose  of  th( 

2.  What  is  the  position  of  dogma  in  Judaism? 

3.  What  do  you  understand  by  ''consecration  of 
life   ? 

10 


Introdtiction 


4.  Give  some  illustrations  of  modern  life,  show- 
ing the  importance  attached  to  ceremonies. 

5.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  observance  of  cere- 
monies on  the  character  of  the  Jews? 

6.  How  is  the  value  of  a  ceremony  determined? 
Give  an  example. 

7.  Explain  the  term  "Catholic  Israel." 

8.  What  should  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  be 
toward  ceremonies  which  he  no  more  observes,  but 
which  are  still  adhered  to  by  the  majority  of  Jews? 

9.  How  should  ceremonial  objects  be  regarded 
in  the  school? 

10.  Give  a  brief  summary  of  your  own  attitude 
toward  ceremonies. 


11 


I.     THE  SABBATH 

Object.— The  institution  of  the  Sabbath,  the 
most  important  in  the  range  of  Jewish  ceremonies, 
has  as  its  primary  object  the  sanctification  of  life. 
By  calling  one  day  in  the  week  holy,  man's  real 
destiny  is  recalled  and  emphasized.  Indeed,  the 
idea  of  physical  rest  and  abstention  from  ordinary 
labor  is  aimed  at  by  the  law-giver,  as  the  term  Sab- 
bath (cessation)  indicates,  but  this  also  is  only  a 
means  to  the  final  end.  Note  that  the  command- 
ment, both  in  Exodus  (20:8-11)  and  Deuteronomy 
(5:12-15)  begins  with  the  positive  order  to  keep 
the  day  holy,  which  is  followed  by  the  prohibition 
agamst  all  manner  of  labor.  This  higher  purpose 
of  the  Sabbath  day  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  pre- 
senting the  lesson,  as  it  will  form  the  best  criterion 
for  what  should  be  done  and  what  should  be  avoided 
on  this  day. 

^  The  reason  for  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  day 
IS  variously  given  in  the  two  versions  of  the  Ten 
Commandments,  in  Exodus  and  Deuteronomy.  God 
created  the  world  in  six  days  and  rested  on  the 
seventh,  hence  we  also  should  rest  on  the  seventh 
day,  in  commemoration  of  this  event.  This  is  the 
reason  given  in  Exodus  (20:11,  also  32:17;  com- 
pare Genesis  2:  1-3),  for  the  observance  of  the  Sab- 
bath day.  In  the  Deuteronomic  version  of  the  Ten 
Commandments,  a  historical  reason  is  assigned: 
And  thou  shalt  remember  that  thou  wast  a  serv- 
ant in  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  the  Lord  thy  God 
brought  thee  out  thence  by  a  mighty  hand  and  by 
an  outstretched  arm;  therefore  the  Lord  thy  God 

12 


The  Sabbath 


commanded  thee  to  keep  the  sabbath  day."  This 
double  significance  of  the  Sabbath— the  religious 
and  the  historical — is  emphasized  in  the  Kiddush 
recited  on  Friday  night.  It  is  to  be  "a  memorial 
of  the  creation"  and  "a  remembrance  of  the  de- 
parture from  Egypt."  God,  the  Creator  of  heaven 
and  earth,  and  God,  the  Redeemer  of  Israel,— these 
are  the  two  great  ideas  suggested  by  the  observ- 
ance of  the  Sabbath  day. 

The  Sabbath— A  Day  of  Rest.— "Six  days  shalt 
thou  labour,  and  do  all  thy  work;  but  the  seventh 
day  is  a  sabbath  unto  the  Lord  thy  God,  in  it  thou 
shalt  not  do  any  manner  of  work,  thou,  nor  thy 
son,  nor  thy  daughter,  nor  thy  man-servant,  nor 
thy  maid-servant,  nor  thy  cattle,  nor  thy  stranger 
that  is  within  thy  gates."  (Exodus  20:  9-10.)  La- 
bor is  the  duty  and  the  privilege  of  man.  Idleness 
is  both  a  sin  and  a  misfortune.  It  is  our  mission 
to  add  to  the  knowledge,  the  comfort  and  the  wealth 
of  the  world  by  the  work  of  our  hands^  or  of  our 
brains.  By  means  of  honest,  conscientious  work, 
in  whatever  domain,  we  enrich  our  own  lives  and 
add  to  the  beauty  and  perfection  of  the  world. 
(Read  to  the  class  Psalms  128:2;  Proverbs  6:  6-11.) 

The  preservation  of  physical  health,  however,  is 
as  much  a  rehgious  duty  as  labor  is.  After  six  days 
of  work,  the  body  needs  rest  and  recreation.  The 
Sabbath  day  is  thus  intended  to  secure  for  our 
bodies  that  rest  which  they  demand  after  a  week 
of  toil.  Note  the  humanity  of  the  law.  Even  the 
slave  and  the  beast  should  be  allowed  to  rest  on 
this  day.  (Compare  Deuteronomy  5 :  14.)  Such 
touches  of  mercy  and  kindness  to  dependents  and 
to  the  brute  creation  fill  the  pages  of  our  Bible. 

Only  a  few  specific  instances  of  the  kinds  of  labor 
13 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

from  which  we  should  abstain  on  the  Sabbath  day 
are  given  in  the  Bible.  (Exodus  16:29;  35:3; 
Jeremiah  17:21;  Nehemiah  10:32;  13:15.)  Our 
Rabbis,  however,  have  classified  all  kinds  of  work 
under  thirty-nine  heads,  which  include  all  possible 
cases  of  forbidden  labor.  Any  manner  of  work 
that  requires  special  exertion  or  that  may  mar  the 
spiritual  character  of  the  day  must  be  avoided. 

In  emphasizing  the  prohibition  against  labor,  the 
teacher  will  be  confronted  with  the  difficulty  of 
harmonizing  his  teachings  with  the  actual  practice 
in  some  of  the  homes  from  which  his  pupils  come. 
It  would  be  a  grave  mistake  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  to  attempt  to  condone  the  Sabbath-break- 
ing on  the  part  of  parents  (see  Leviticus  19:3). 
Conditions  may  be  explained  to  older  children, 
making  them  understand  at  the  same  time  that 
while  business  competition  may  compel  some  to 
violate  the  Sabbath,  it  does  not  excuse  it.  The 
consciousness  of  the  Sabbath-breaker  should  be 
aroused  and  quickened,  rather  than  pacified  and 
thus  remove  the  feeling  of  guilt.  A  person  w^ho  is 
conscious  of  the  fact  that  he  is  committing  a  sin, 
even  though  the  sin  is  committed  under  duress, 
will  endeavor  to  obviate  as  much  as  lies  in  his 
power  the  circumstances  that  force  him  into  such 
conduct  and  also  to  minimize  the  sin  itself  as  much 
as  possible.  Not  so  with  the  one  who  is  hardened 
in  his  sin  and  comes  to  think  of  it  as  justifiable  and 
excusable.  The  street-cleaner  who  comes  home 
from  his  work  on  Sabbath  afternoon,  puts  on  his 
Sabbath  garments,  reads  his  prayers  and  spends 
the  rest  of  the  day  in  religious  devotion  or  dignified 
recreation  is  worthy  of  emulation.  He  is  sorry  for 
the  sin  he  is  committing  and  is  eagerly  awaiting 
the  opportunity  to  observe  the  Sabbath  in  its  en- 

14 


The  Sabbath 


tirety     There  is  a  vast  difference  between  explain- 
ing the  conditions  that  cause  the  sin  and  justifying 
the  sin  committed,  and  the  teacher  must  be  careful 
to  distinguish  between  the  two.     In  presenting  the 
lesson,   he   must   explain   the  modern   tendency  ot 
Sabbath-breaking  as  a  misfortune  which  must  be 
temporarily  endured  but  which  may  be  overcome 
in   time,   so   that   every  effort   should    be   directed 
toward  the  end  of  overcoming  this  misfortune.  ^  ihe 
feeling  of  respect  for  parents  will  not  be  diminished 
by  making  them  appear  as  sinners,  since  their  sin- 
ful actions  will  be  explained  and  attributed  to  the 
proper  cause,  while  the  teacher  will  have  done  his 
duty  to  his  calling  by  making  the  action  appear 
sinful      The  Sabbath  spirit  has  been  introduced  in 
many  a  home  through  the  children  who  have  been 
instructed  by  conscientious  teachers,  and  many  a 
parent  came  to  see  Sabbath  desecration  in  its  true 
light  through  the  medium  of  proper  school  instruc- 
tion and   guidance  in  these  matters   given   to   his 
children.     Such  a  duty  and  such  a  holy  privilege 
should  certainly  not  be  neglected  by  any  teacher 
engaged   in  planting  Jewishness   in   the  hearts  ot 
his  young  pupils. 

The  Sabbath— A  Day  of  Joy.— "And  call  the  Sab- 
bath a  delight."  (Isaiah  58:13.)  The  Sabbath 
should  be  a  day  of  joy  and  cheer,  of  dignified  p  eas- 
ure  and  recreation.  Because  of  the  numerous  laws 
and  regulations  that  surround  the  observance  of 
the  day,  the  notion  has  arisen  in  some  circles  that 
the  Jewish  Sabbath  was  a  day  of  austere  solemnity, 
a  day  of  solemn  thoughts  and  sad  contemplation. 
This  is  very  far  from  the  truth.  The  observant 
Tew  always  looked  forward  to  the  Sabbath  with 
most    pleasurable    anticipations;    he    welcomed    it 

15 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jczvish  Religion 


with  cheer  and  exultation ;  he  called  it  in  his  litera- 
ture by  the  most  endearing  terms  and  spent  it  in 
joy  and  gladness.  (Read  Schechter,  Studies  in 
Judaism,  pp.  244-248.) 

In  agreement  with  this  attitude  toward  the  Sab- 
bath the  Jew  endeavors  to  prepare  the  best  food 
that  he  can  afford  and  to  clothe  himself  in  the  finest 
garrnents  that  he  possesses.  Fasting  or  mourn- 
ing IS  strictly  forbidden,  and,  in  the  service  for  the 
day,  any  prayer  that  may  arouse  sadness  or  grief 
IS  studiously  avoided.  When  visiting  the  sick  or 
the  mourners,  one  should  say  that  this  is  not  a  day 
of  weeping  or  sadness,  and  that  consolation  and 
help  will  surely  come  to  them. 

Emphasize  this  point  to  your  class.  Dilate  on 
the  joy  and  happiness  that  fill  the  Jewish  house- 
hold on  the  Sabbath;  describe  the  evening  meal 
with  Its  tasty  viands  and  accompanying  cheerful 
songs  (Zemirot);  the  family  reunion  at  the  table; 
the  peace  and  happiness  that  reign  supreme  in  the 
Jewish  household  at  that  time.  Read  to  the  class 
from  Berkowitz,  ''Sabbath  Sentiment  in  the  Home," 
pp.  25,  61,  and  other  songs  which  show  the  love 
and  affection  the  Jews  always  felt  for  their  Sab- 
bath.   See  also  ib.  pages  37-40,  52. 

As  to  the  nature  of  the  pleasures  in  which  we 
might  indulge  on  this  day,  there  is  only  one  stand- 
ard:— the  sanctification  of  life.  Those  pleasures 
only  may  we  enjoy  which  lead  to  the  better  appre- 
ciation of  the  holiness  of  the  day,  or,  at  least,  do  not 
detract  therefrom.  Boisterous  amusements,  games 
that  cause  exertion  and  fatigue,  sports  that  excite 
the  nerves  and  satisfy  only  the  animal  part  within 
us,  are  not  the  proper  pleasures  for  the  Sabbath 
day.^  Other  amusements,  which,  though  not  fa- 
tiguing, are  not  dignified  and  do  not  lead  to  higher 

16 


The  Sabbath 


thoughts  and  a  better  appreciation  of  the  sanctity 
of  the  day,  should  be  avoided.  The  primary  object 
of  the  day  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  deciding  as 
to  what  manner  of  pleasure  to  indulge  in,  and  every 
individual  will  be  able  to  decide  for  himself  what 
to  do  and  what  to  avoid. 

The  Sabbath— A  Day  of  Worship.— "Half  for 
yourself  and  half  for  God"  is  the  principle  laid 
down  by  the  Rabbis  regarding  the  proper  observ- 
ance of  Sabbaths  and  holidays.  While  pleasure 
and  recreation  should  form  part  of  the  day's  pro- 
gram, worship  and  instruction  should  be  given  a 
prominent  place  in  the  duties  of  the  day.  The 
home  service  of  the  day  centers  about  the  greeting 
and  taking  leave  of  the  Sabbath.  The  day  is  wel- 
comed in  the  home  first  by  lighting  the  Sabbath 
candles  by  the  housewife  and  pronouncing  the 
blessing  over  them,  and  then  by  the  recital  of 
Kiddush  by  the  head  of  the  household.  (See  Rose- 
nau,  Jewish  Ceremonial  Institutions  and  Customs, 
pp.  115-120.)  Blessing  the  children  by  their  par- 
ents is  a  beautiful  custom  observed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Sabbath.  The  sanctity  of  the  home, 
the  exalted  position  of  the  wife  in  the  Jewish  house- 
hold, the  beauty  of  a  pure  family  life  are  thus  em- 
phasized at  the  very  entrance  of  the  blessed  day. 

The  Kiddush  consists  of  an  introductory  section, 
a  quotation  from  Genesis  2:1-3,  followed  by  two 
blessings,  one  over  the  wine  and  another  that  re- 
fers to  the  sanctity  of  the  day.  Wine  is  a  symbol 
of  joy  and  cheer  (Psalms  104:  15).  The  cup  of  wine 
is  passed  around  and  all  the  members  of  the  fam- 
ily partake  of  it.  A  similar  ceremony  is  also  ob- 
served in  connection  with  the  Sabbath  morning 
meal. 

17 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  Sabbath,  the  Habdalah 
prayer  is  recited,  also  over  a  cup  of  wine.  Loath 
to  part  with  the  blessed  day,  Jews  wait  with  the 
recital  of  the  Habdalah  prayer  until  stars  appear 
in  the  sky,  long  after  sunset.  Habdalah  means 
''distinction,"  and  it  is  to  emphasize  the  distinction 
between  the  Sabbath  and  the  week  days.  The 
prayer  consists  of  a  blessing  over  the  wine,  a  bless- 
ing over  the  spices  and  a  blessing  over  the  light. 
By  pronouncing  a  blessing  over  the  light  the  first 
thing  in  the  creation  of  the  world  is  recalled.  The 
custom  of  having  spices  at  the  Habdalah  has  been 
variously  explained.  Whatever  the  origin  of  the 
custom  is,  it  serves  now  to  remind  us  of  the  cheer- 
fulness and  joy  of  the  Sabbath  day;  the  pleasant 
odor  of  the  spices  symbolizing  the  departure  of  the 
"additional  soul,"  which,  the  Rabbis  said,  every  one 
gets  on  the  Sabbath,  and  which  leaves  its  fragrance 
with  us  during  the  whole  week.  (See  Rosenau,  ib. 
pp.  71-75.) 

In  the  synagogue,  special  services  are  held  on 
the  Sabbath,  special  hymns  and  psalms  are  sung 
and  recited,  all  of  which  tend  to  impress  upon  us 
the  holiness  of  the  day.  A  prominent  feature  of 
the  morning  service  is  the  reading  of  a  section  from 
the  Pentateuch  and  one  from  the  Prophets  (Pa- 
rashah  and  Haftarah).  In  most  synagogues  the  se- 
lections from  the  Pentateuch  are  so  arranged  that 
all  the  five  books  are  completed  in  the  course  of 
one  year.  In  others,  the  Pentateuch  is  completed 
once  in  three  years.  It  is  usual  to  honor  some  of 
the  worshippers  by  calling  them  up  to  the  reading 
desk  while  the  Torah  is  being  read.  Each  one  thus 
honored  pronounces  the  blessing  before  and  after 
the  reading  of  the  section  to  which  he  is  called. 
This  is  regarded  as  an  honor  conferred  upon  the 

18 


The  Sabbath 


individual  who  is  so  ''called  up."  The  section  from 
the  Prophets  (Haftarah)  usually  contains  some 
reference  to  the  portion  from  the  Pentateuch  read 
on  the  same  day.  A  boy,  on  reaching  the  age  of 
thirteen  (Bar  Mizwah),  is  often  honored  by  being 
permitted  to  read  the  section  from  the  Torah  and 
the  Haftarah,  thus  indicating  that  he  has  become 
a  member  of  the  congregation. 

The  emphasis  that  Judaism  lays  on  instruction 
is  thus  brought  out  most  prominently  in  the  Sab- 
bath service.  Not  only  should  the  heart  be  up- 
lifted in  worship,  but  the  mind  also  should  be  re- 
freshed by  study  and  investigation  of  the  divine 
word.  The  reading  from  the  Torah  gave  an  im- 
petus for  further  study  and  interpretation,  which 
was  the  origin  of  the  more  modern  sermon.  At 
first,  this  was  given  in  the  afternoon  by  some 
learned  person  and  dealt  mainly  with  the  exposi- 
tion of  the  text.  The  more  modern  custom  is  to 
have  the  sermon  delivered  during  the  service  in 
the  morning,  soon  after  the  Torah  is  placed  back 
in  the  ark.  In  the  long  summer  afternoons  it  is 
customary  to  read  the  chapters  from  the  "Ethics 
of  the  Fathers,"  which  contain  most  beautiful  max- 
ims of  life  and  conduct.  In  the  old  synagogue. 
Sabbath  afternoon  was  indeed  a  busy  time.  Vari- 
ous circles  and  groups  would  join  in  the  study  of 
one  or  another  branch  of  Jewish  lore,  while  others 
still  would  listen  to  an  address  by  a  preacher.  The 
intellectual  pleasure  derived  from  study  and  re- 
search was  that  most  sought  after  and  most  en- 
joyed by  Jews  of  all  times. 

Objects  for  Illustration. — In  presenting  the  lesson 
on  the  Sabbath,  it  is  well  that  the  teacher  provide 
himself  with  some  or  all  of  the  following  objects, 

19 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


which  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  various  portions 
of  the  lesson.  When  showing  them  to  the  class  it 
should  be  mentioned  that  these  objects  are  now  in 
actual  use  by  Jews  all  over  the  world. 

The  Sabbath  Lamp  .—This  may  be  either  one  of 
antique  type,  with  the  seven  branches,  or,  if  this  is 
not  obtainable,  a  modern  candelabra  may  be  sub- 
stituted. 

The  Kiddush  Cup,  either  of  silver  or  plated.  The 
Spice  Box.     The  Habdalah  Candle. 

When  speaking  of  the  reading  from  the  Torah, 
a  miniature  scroll  of  the  Law  may  be  shown  It 
should  be  explained  that  the  Torah  is  written  by  a 
pious  scribe  on  parchment,  and  not  printed. 

There  are  some  very  beautiful  pictures  depicting 
various    ceremonies    connected    with    the    Sabbath 
Ihe  teacher  should  get  some  of  these  and  pass  them 
around  the  class.     (See  Rosenau,  op.  cit,  pictures 
facing  pp.  Z2,  2>7,  71,  115,  124.)         ^         '  ^ 

,   RESUME 

^  The  ideal  of  the  Sabbath  day  is  not  merely  absten- 
tion from  labor,  but  rest  sanctified  by  spiritual  en- 
deavor.^ The  sacredness  of  human  life  receives  fresh 
emphasis  when  we  give  one  out  of  every  seven  davs 
to  God.  -^ 

The  historic  consciousness,  as  well  as  the  purely 
religious  emotions,  are  stirred  by  the  observance  of 
the  Sabbath.  It  is  a  "Sign"  between  God  and  Israel 
a  'perpetual  covenant."  (Exodus  31:13,  16,  17) 
The  loyalty  of  the  Jews  to  their  religion  can  fre- 
quently be  measured  by  the  sacrifices  they  are  will- 
mg  to  make  for  the  sake  of  the  Sabbath. 

While  all  work  is  strictly  forbidden  on  the  Sab- 
20 


Habdalah  Set 


The  Sabbath 


bath,  when  a  human  life  is  in  danger  it  is  not  only 
permitted  to  do  all  kinds  of  labor,  but  it  is  even 
enjoined  and  regarded  a  "Mizwah,"  a  duty,  to  break 
the  Sabbath.  The  most  learned  and  most  pious  Jew 
will  not  hesitate  to  kindle  a  fire  on  the  Sabbath, 
when  it  is  necessary  for  the  sake  of  a  sick  person. 
The  Sabbath  is  not  to  be  a  yoke  but  a  source  of 
pleasure. 

We  must,  however,  discriminate  between  low  or 
frivolous  pastimes  and  exalted  pleasures.  The  pri- 
mary purpose  of  the  day,  as  a  holy  day,  if  kept  con- 
stantly in  mind,  will  be  the  best  test  as  to  the  kind 
of  pleasures  to  pursue  on  the  Sabbath  day. 

Do  not  attempt  to  excuse  or  justify  Sabbath  dese- 
cration. There  are  many  practices  that  you,  as  a  re- 
ligious teacher,  will  be  unable  to  excuse.  Better 
arouse  and  foster  the  consciousness  that  the  break- 
ing of  the  Sabbath  is  a  sin,  and  to  be  forced  to  break 
it  should  be  regarded  as  a  terrible  misfortune,  to 
avoid  which  noble  men  and  women  have  brought 
and  still  bring  great  sacrifices.  Mention  the  things 
that  one  can  observe,  even  though  one  be  forced  to 
attend  to  business.  Since  the  violation  of  the  Sab- 
bath is  a  misfortune,  all  effort  will  naturally  be  di- 
rected toward  minimizing  the  misfortune  as  much 
as  possible. 

Public  worship  on  the  Sabbath  day  helps  to  unite 
the  whole  House  of  Israel,  even  as  the  Friday  night 
meal  in  the  Jewish  home  helps  to  unite  the  individ- 
ual family.  By  attending  public  service  regularly 
one  gives  concrete  expression  to  his  religious  emo- 
tions, and  at  the  same  time  evinces  his  loyalty  to 
the  Jewish  people,  and  thus  strengthens  the  bond  of 
union  that  unites  all  Israel.  Illustrate  by  mention- 
ing the  example  of  a  Jew  who  comes  to  a  distant 
land,  where  everything  appears  to  him  strange,  but 

21 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jeivish  Religion 

when  he  comes  to  the  synagogue  he  feels  himself 
at  home,  among  his  own  brethren. 

The  synagogue  was  also  the  first  school-house  in 
Jewish  history.  To  study  and  to  learn  was  not  less 
a  religious  command  than  to  worship  and  to  pray. 
It  is  through  greater  knowledge  that  we  can  better 
worship  our  God.  The  synagogue,  therefore,  pro- 
vided for  both  "Torah"  and  **Abodah,"  study  and 
worship.  It,  indeed,  so  combined  the  two  that  some 
of  the  prayers  in  our  liturgy  are  nothing  else  but 
lessons  for  study,  while  the  study  of  the  Law  was 
regarded  as  a  part  of  religious  service. 

Equal  prominence  was  given  on  the  Sabbath  day 
to  the  third  principle  of  Simeon  the  Just, — Acts  of 
Kindness.  (See  Ethics  of  the  Fathers,  1 :2.)  The 
stranger,  the  poor  and  the  needy  were  provided  with 
homes  and  food  on  the  Sabbath.  There  was  hardly 
a  Jewish  home  where  there  was  not  a  *'guest" 
(Orah)  at  the  table  at  the  Friday  evening  meal. 
The  hospitality  of  the  Jew  was  most  general  and 
kindly  on  Sabbaths  and  holidays.  Any  one  who  had 
a  home,  however  humble,  was  ready  to  share  it 
with  a  less  fortunate  brother  who  had  none. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  final  aim  of  the  Sabbath? 

2.  Mention  the  two  reasons  given  for  the  ob- 
servance of  the  Sabbath,  and  indicate  the  respective 
value  of  each. 

3.  What  is  the  Jewish  attitude  toward  labor? 
Quote  some  passages  from  the  Bible  or  Rabbinic 
literature  in  which  this  attitude  is  expressed. 

4.  How  should  the  teacher  treat  the  subject  of 
Sabbath  desecration  in  modern  times? 

22 


The  Sabbath 


5.  What  should  be  the  test  for  the  kind  of  recre- 
ation on  the  Sabbath?  Give  examples  of  the  proper 
and  improper  kind  of  pleasures. 

6.  Prove  from  Jewish  law  and  practice  that  the 
Sabbath  was  a  day  of  joy  rather  than  a  day  of  sad- 
ness and  gloom. 

7.  Explain  and  describe  the  ceremonies  of  Kid- 
dush  and  Habdalah. 

8.  "Study,  Worship  and  Acts  of  Kindness"  are 
the  pillars  upon  which  human  society  is  founded, 
according  to  Simeon  the  Just.  Explain  how  these 
are  prominent  in  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  day. 

9.  How  would  you  explain  the  idea  of  the  "added 
soul"  which,  our  Rabbis  say,  is  given  to  every  Israel- 
ite on  the  Sabbath? 

10.  Mention  some  good  purposes  served  by  public 
worship. 


23 


II.     THE  JEWISH  CALENDAR— THE 
FESTIVALS 

A^^/l^^^^u^"^^  ^^  ^^®  Knowledge  of  the  Subject.— 

While  the  system  and  arrangement  of  the  Jewish 
calendar  will  probably  not  form  a   subject  of  in- 
struction  in  the   class-room,   it  is   of  the   greatest 
importance  that  the  teacher  should  be  familiar  with 
the  laws  and  general  principles  underlying  the  cal- 
culation of  the  Jewish  calendar,  which  is  founded 
on  principles  entirely  different  from  those  forming 
the  basis  of  the  secular  calendar,  to  which  we  are 
acciistomed.     Many  points  in  the  exposition  of  the 
festivals  will  become  clear  and  assume  new  mean- 
ing after  the  general  principles  of  the  calendar  have 
been  grasped  and  learned.    It  will,  of  course  not  be 
possible  here  to  give  a  detailed  and  scientific  dis- 
cussion of  the  subject,  but  the  general  laws  that  are 
indispensable  to  an  understanding  of  the  calendar 
with  a  few  examples  illustrating  their  application; 
will  suthce  for  our  purpose.     For  a  more  elaborate 
discussion  of  the  subject  the  student  is  referred  to 
the  article^'Calendar"  in  the  Jewish  Encyclopedia, 
y^A-Ji^'r^"^^^^""^^^'  '"^^^  J^^^sh  Religion/'  pp. 
234-240^  ^""^^^  '  "Judaism  as  Creed  and  Life,"  pp. 

Days,  Weeks  and  Months.— The  day  in  the  Jew- 
ish  calendar  begins  with  sunset  and  ends  with  sun- 
set (comp.  Genesis  1:5,  etc.).  The  days  of  the 
week  have  no  special  names,  but  are  known  simply 
as  first  day,  second  day,  etc.    The  seventh  day  only 

24 


The  Jezvish  Calendar — The  Festivals 


has  a  special  name,  the  Sabbath,  and  the  sixth  day 
was  designated  in  Rabbinic  writings  as  **Erev  Sab- 
bath," the  '*eve  of  the  Sabbath,"  while  the  even- 
ing following  the  Sabbath  was  called  "Mozae  Sab- 
bath," the  "departure  of  the  Sabbath."  The  same 
names  are  also  applied  to  the  day  preceding  a  fes- 
tival and  the  evening  following  it  (Erev  Yom  Tob 
and  Mozae  Yom  Tob).  The  day  following  the  fes- 
tival is  known  as  *Tsru  Hag,"  with  reference  to 
Psalms  118:27. 

The  months  also  were  known  as  the  first,  second, 
etc.,  in  Biblical  times.  There  are,  however,  refer- 
ences in  the  Bible  to  names  of  months,  denoting 
agricultural  conditions.  Of  these  only  the  following 
four  names  are  preserved — **Abib"  (ear  of  corn,  Ex- 
odus 13:4),  corresponding  to  the  first  month; 
''Ethanim"  (hardy  fruit,  I  Kings  8:2),  correspond- 
ing to  the  seventh  month;  ''Bui"  (rain,  I  Kings 
6:38),  corresponding  to  the  eighth  month;  *'Ziv" 
(beauty,  I  Kings  6:1),  corresponding  to  the  second 
month.  The  following  are  the  names  of  the  He- 
brew months,  which  have  been  used  among  the 
Jews  since  their  return  from  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity: Nisan  (corresponding  approximately  to 
April),  lyar  (May),  Sivan  (June),  Tammuz  (July), 
Ab  (August),  Elul  (September),  Tishri  (October), 
Heshvan  (November),  Kislev  (December),  Tebet 
(January),  Shebat  (February),  Adar  (March).  In 
the  leap  year  another  month  is  added,  known  as 
Adar  Sheni,  i.  e..  Second  Adar. 

Arrangement  of  the  Calendar.— The  Jewish  cal- 
endar is  chiefly  lunar  in  character,  so  that  the  month 
is  made  to  correspond  to  the  period  it  takes  the 
moon  to  revolve  around  the  earth,  approximately 
29y2  days.     In  order  to  adjust  the  lunar  year  (of 

25 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

354  days)  to  the  solar  year  (of  365  days),  it  became 
necessary  to  insert  an  additional  month  every  three 
years,  or,  more  correctly,  seven  months  in  the  course 
of  nineteen  years.  We  thus  have  seven  leap  years 
in  every  cycle  (Machzor)  of  nineteen  years,  i.  e., 
the  third,  sixth,  eighth,  eleventh,  fourteenth,  seven- 
teenth and  nineteenth. 

The  Jewish  month  should,  strictly  speaking,  con- 
sist of  29^  days.  Because  of  the  inconvenience 
involved  in  dividing  a  day  between  two  months,  the 
calendar  is  so  arranged  that  each  month  has  alter- 
nately 29  and  30  days.  In  order  that  the  Day  of 
Atonement  should  not  come  on  a  Friday  or  a  Sun- 
day, because  of  the  hardship  it  would  involve  to 
observe  two  consecutive  Sabbaths,  and  also  that 
Hoshana  Rabba  should  not  come  on  a  Saturday,  the 
calendar  is  so  arranged  that  the  first  day  of  Tishri 
never  comes  on  a  Sunday,  Wednesday  or  Friday. 
This  arrangement  made  it  necessary  to  change  oc- 
casionally the  strictly  scientific  formula  of  the  cal- 
endar. The  change  is  made  in  the  months  of  Hesh- 
van  and  Kislev.  The  number  of  days  in  these  two 
months  therefore  varies,  so  that  sometimes  they 
both  have  30  days  each,  sometimes  29  days  each, 
and  at  other  times  they  have  29  and  30  days  re- 
spectively. 

The  first  day  of  the  month  (Rosh  Hodesh)  was 
in  olden  times  celebrated  as  a  solemn  convocation. 
Special  sacrifices  were  ofifered  and  all  work  was  sus- 
pended. It  was  regarded  as  a  period  of  atonement 
and  aroused  thoughts  of  repentance  of  sin  and  of 
the  return  to  a  new  life.  The  character  of  the  New 
Moon  has  lost  much  of  its  ancient  significance,  al- 
though the  special  services  for  the  day  still  retain 
and  emphasize  the  idea  of  repentance.  On  the  Sab- 
bath preceding  the  New  Moon,  a  special  prayer  is 

26 


The  Jezmsh  Calendar — The  Festivals 


offered  and  the  day  of  the  New  Moon  is  announced. 
It  is  in  consonance  with  the  idea  that  every  new 
period  in  life  should  bring  up  earnest  thoughts,  seri- 
ous reflections  on  our  past  deeds  and  resolutions  for 
a  better  life  in  the  future.  It  was  not,  however,  at 
any  time  regarded  as  a  sad  occasion.  Prayers  of 
gratitude  and  joyful  thanksgiving  (Hallel)  were  in- 
cluded in  the  service  of  the  day,  and  the  day  was 
observed  as  a  minor  festival. 

In  those  months  which  have  thirty  days,  the 
thirtieth  day  is  also  kept  as  Rosh  Hodesh  of  the 
following  month. 

Second  Days  of  the  Festivals. — Before  the  calen- 
dar, as  we  now  have  it,  was  fully  established,  the 
first  day  of  the  month  (Rosh  Hodesh)  was  declared 
by  the  Sanhedrin  (the  highest  court  of  Judea), 
through  the  testimony  of  witnesses.  The  beginning 
of  the  astronomical  month  is  the  moment  of  the 
conjunction  of  sun  and  moon  (Molad),  when  noth- 
ing can  be  seen  of  the  moon.  Six  hours  later  a 
small  portion  of  the  moon  can  be  seen  under  favor- 
able conditions.  Witnesses  who  watched  for  this 
moment  and  saw  the  moon  were  examined  by  the 
Sanhedrin  on  the  thirtieth  of  the  month.  If  their 
testimony  was  found  to  be  reliable,  the  day  was 
declared  *'Rosh  Hodesh"  and  the  preceding  month 
had  twenty-nine  days.  If  no  reliable  witnesses  ap- 
peared, the  day  was  added  to  the  previous  month, 
making  it  a  month  of  thirty  days,  and  the  following 
day  was  kept  as  "Rosh  Hodesh."  The  decision  of 
the  Sanhedrin  was  immediately  proclaimed  in  Jeru- 
salem, and  messengers  were  dispatched  to  other 
communities  to  announce  the  day  of  the  New  Moon, 
so  that  the  festivals  coming  within  the  month  might 
be  celebrated  by  all  on  the  same  day.    Jewish  com- 

27 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

munities  that  lived  at  a  distance  from  Jerusalem 
and  could  not  be  reached  in  time  by  signals  or 
messengers,  kept  two  days  of  the  holiday,  so  as  to 
be  certain  of  observing  the  proper  day.  This  cus- 
tom received  the  approval  of  the  highest  authori- 
ties of  the  time,  and  in  course  of  time  became  gen- 
eral throughout  the  diaspora  (Dispersion).  The 
New  Year  holy  day  was  often  observed  for  two 
days,  even  in  Jerusalem  itself,  because  of  the  un- 
certainty in  reference  to  the  first  day  of  the  month 
existing  even  there.  The  Day  of  Atonement  was 
nowhere  kept  for  more  than  one  day,  on  account 
of  the  hardship  of  fasting  for  two  consecutive  days. 
Even  after  the  calendar  was  fixed  and  the  day  of 
the  New  Moon  could  be  calculated  with  ease  ahead 
of  time,  the  second-day  holiday  continued  to  be  ob- 
served by  the  great  majority  of  the  Jews  living  out- 
side of  Palestine,  so  that  it  became  a  permanent 
institution  of  Judaism.  Although  knowing  that  the 
cause  of  its  origin  no  more  exists,  the  observant  Jew 
argues  that  since  it  has  become  a  "Minhag,"  a  cus- 
tom hallowed  by  time  and  followed  by  many  gen- 
erations of  Jews,  it  has  the  force  of  law  and  cannot 
be  abrogated  by  any  individual  community.  On  the 
other  hand,  those  who  are  less  rigid  in  their  relig- 
ious observances,  both  in  this  country  and  in  West- 
ern Europe,  have  given  up  the  observance  of  the 
second  day.  While  admitting  the  force  of  the  con- 
servative argument  in  favor  of  it,  they  believe  that 
this  is  not  sufficient  reason  for  adding  hardships  to 
those  against  which  the  Jew  must  contend  under 
the  present  economic  conditions. 

Memorable  Dates  in  Jewish  Year. — The  memora- 
ble dates  in  the  Jewish  calendar  are  the  three  festi- 
vals— Passover  (Nisan  15),  Shabuot  (Sivan  6)  and 

28 


The  Jezvish  Calendar — The  Festivals 


Sukkot  (Tishrl  15)  ;  the  two  holy  days,  New  Year 
(Tishri  1),  and  the  Day  of  Atonement  (Tishri 
10)  ;  the  minor  festivals,  Hanukkah  (Kislev  25)  and 
Purim  (Adar  14)  ;  and  the  fast  days,  Tishah  b'Ab 
(Ab  9),  Shibah  Asar  b'Tammuz  (Tammuz  17), 
Asarah  b'Tebet  (Tebet  10),  Taanit  Esther  (Adar 
13),  and  Zom  Gedaliah  (Tishri  3).  Besides  these, 
there  are  some  other  dates  of  feasts  and  fasts  of 
smaller  significance  that  will  be  noted  in  future 
lessons. 

The  Three  Festivals. — The  three  chief  festivals  of 
the  Jewish  Year — Passover,  Shabuot  and  Sukkot — 
have  a  double  significance.  They  were  primarily 
observed  as  agricultural  feasts — Passover  marking 
the  early  harvest,  Shabuot  the  later  harvest,  and 
Sukkot  the  period  of  ingathering  of  the  fruit.  Later 
they  also  served  to  mark  the  various  stages  in  the 
events  connected  w^ith  the  birth  of  the  Jewish  na- 
tion— the  Exodus  from  Egypt  (Passover),  the  Rev- 
elation at  Mt.  Sinai  (Shabuot),  and  the  Journey 
Through  the  Desert  (Sukkot).  In  the  Bible  as  well 
as  in  the  ceremonies  connected  with  the  observance 
of  these  days,  these  two  meanings  are  alternately 
emphasized,  although,  in  course  of  time,  the  historic 
reason  has  become  more  prominent  and  gradually 
overshadowed  the  original  agricultural  significance 
of  these  days. 

The  Historic  Consciousness. — The  observance  of 
these  festivals  has  always  been  regarded  as  the  most 
valuable  means  to  arouse  the  historic  consciousness 
of  the  Jew,  and  thus  strengthen  the  feelings  of  loy- 
alty and  devotion  to  the  Jewish  past  and  Jewish 
ideals.  Whatever  our  view^s  are  as  to  the  present 
position  of   the  Jews   in   the  economy  of  nations, 

29 


Methods  of  Teaching   the  Jezvish  Religion 


whatever  ideals  or  hopes  we  entertain  regarding  the 
future  of  our  people,  all  are  agreed  in  the  fact  that 
Israel  had  a  great  and  glorious  past,  a  history  of 
which  we,  the  scions  of  the  House  of  Israel,  may 
justly  be  proud.  Whether  we  regard  the  Jews  of 
the  present  as  a  nation,  a  race  or  a  religious  denom- 
ination;  whether  we  beHeve  the  mission  of  the  Jews 
to  be  to  return  to  Palestine  and  establish  there 
again  their  religion  and  national  culture  or  to  re- 
main scattered  among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  and 
thereby  help  in  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom 
of  God  upon  earth,  there  can  be  but  little  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  the  fact  that  the  Jews  originally 
were  a  nation  and  that  they  developed  their  religion 
along  national  lines.  A  peculiar  nation,  indeed,  the 
Jews  always  were,  a  nation  that  made  religion  the 
guiding  factor  in  its  existence,  and  therefore  was 
able  to  maintain  itself  even  after  its  national  center 
was^  destroyed ;  a  nation  that  strove  consciously  to 
realize  in  its  national  life  the  highest  ideals  of  re- 
ligion and  morality,  that  made  the  belief  in  God 
and  loyalty  to  His  law  the  only  criteria  of  patriotism 
and  national  adherence;  but  a  nation,  nevertheless, 
a  nation  with  a  history,  a  nation  with  a  language 
and  with  a  literature,  with  national  institutions 
and  customs,  with  national  heroes  and  martyrs.  The 
emotions  by  which  we  are  stirred  when  we  think  of 
the  national  greatness  of  our  ancestors,  the  feelings 
of  pride  and  exaltation  that  well  up  in  our  breasts 
on  contemplating  the  noble  achievements  of  proph- 
ets and  rabbis,  kings  and  princes,  the  sympathies 
aroused  within  us  when  we  hear  of  the  many  mis- 
fortunes that  befell  our  people,  and  the  pride  we 
take  in^  the  many  triumphs  that  they  have  achieved 
— this  is  what  we  understand  by  the  historic  con- 
sciousness.   It  is  the  feeling  that  we  have  a  history 

30 


The  Jewish  Calendar— The  Festivals 


to  be  proud  of,  that  we  have  a  great  and  glorious 
past  and  that  this  past  imposes  upon  us  obHgations 
of  loyalty  to  the  religion  and  ideals  of  our  an- 
cestors. 

While  strictly  religious  in  their  character,  ^  as 
everything  in  Judaism  is,  these  holidays,  serving 
as  memorials  of  the  past,  are  intended  to  foster  this 
historic  consciousness  and  to  impress  upon  the 
young  the  dignity  and  grandeur  of  Israel's  history. 
Their  pedagogic  value  has  been  recognized  even  in 
the  Bible,  where  we  find  it  constantly  repeated  that 
the  nature  and  significance  of  these  feasts  be  made 
known  to  the  children  (Exodus  13:  8-14;  Deuteron- 
omy 6:20,  et  al.).  In  presenting  a  lesson  on  any 
of  these  holidays  the  teacher  should  seek  to  arouse 
the  feelings  of  admiration  and  reverence  for  the 
great  deeds  of  the  heroes  and  leaders  of  ancient 
Israel,  to  whom  he  and  his  pupils  are  connected  by 
ties  of  nationality  and  blood  relationship. 

The  Religious  Element— The  chief  purpose  of 
these  festivals,  however,  is  a  religious  one,  as  is, 
indeed,  the  purpose  of  all  Jewish  institutions.  While 
the  historic  aspect  is  important  and  valuable,  it  is 
after  all  only  a  means  to  the  final  end — that  of 
arousing  within  us  feelings  of  obligation  to  God  and 
reminding  us  of  duties  that  might  otherwise  be  for- 
gotten. The  setting  aside  of  special  days  for  re- 
ligious devotion  and  the  contemplation  of  duty  is 
meant  primarily  to  bring  us  nearer  to  an  under- 
standing of  our  destiny  as  children  of  a  divine 
Father,  who  loves  righteousness  and  to  whom  we 
owe  our  very  existence.  Passover,  for  example, 
while,  indeed,  a  national  feast,  reminding  us  of  the 
birth  of  our  nation,  emphasizes  primarily  the  fact 
that  it  was   God   who   took  our  ancestors  out  of 

31 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


Egypt  and  that  it  was  His  mighty  hand  that 
wrought  all  the  wonders  attendant  upon  this  great 
event. 

This  is  the  distinguishing  mark  between  the  Jew- 
ish national  festivals  and  the  national  festivals  of 
other  peoples,  influencing  so  strongly  the  manner 
of  their  observance,  as,  indeed,  it  is  the  distinguish- 
ing mark  between  the  attitude  to  life  of  the  Jews 
and  other  peoples.  In  the  Biblical  records,  in  the 
prayer  book,  in  the  ceremonies  observed  on  these 
days,  the  emphasis  is  constantly  laid  on  the  inter- 
vention of  God  in  our  national  affairs.  The  pupil 
must  be  made  to  see  the  hand  of  God  in  Jewish 
history,  he  must  be  made  to  feel  that  all  our  national 
achievements  and  national  greatness  is  due  to  the 
special  providence  of  a  kind  and  merciful  Father, 
the  Guardian  of  Israel. 

The  Agricultural  Significance.— The  original  agri- 
cultural reason  for  the  observance  of  these  festivals 
must  not  be  entirely  overlooked,  even  at  the  present 
tirne.  It  may  be  difficult  to  present  to  city-bred 
children  the  emotions  of  the  farmer  who  has  scat- 
tered his  seed  and  attended  to  all  the  requirements 
of  the  soil  and  then  waits  for  the  harvest  to  come. 
His  feelings  of  dependence  upon  Providence,  while 
watching  for  the  rain  to  come  in  its  season  and  for 
the  sunshine  to  perfect  nature's  work,  are  deep  and 
intense.  And  when  God  has  blessed  his  handiwork 
and  the  crop  has  been  plenty,  how  grateful  he  feels 
toward  God  for  His  bounties  and  blessings.  His 
faith  in  a  kind  Providence  sustains  him  throughout 
the  long  period  of  waiting,  and  his  gratitude  later 
finds  expression  in  prayer  and  song.  It  is  only  when 
these  emotions  are  brought  out  clearly  and  made 
plain  that  our  children  will  have  a  clear  idea  of  the 

32 


The  Jewish  Calendar — The  Festivals 

meaning  and  full  significance  of  the  American 
Thanksgiving  Day,  one  of  the  most  glorious  of  our 
national  institutions. 

Incidentally,  the  teacher  may  use  this  oppor- 
tunity to  explain  the  reason  why  the  Jews,  who 
were  at  first  an  agricultural  people,  are  now  mainly 
engaged  in  the  trades  and  professions.  He  may 
tell  his  pupils  that  during  the  Middle  Ages  and  in 
some  places  even  in  modern  times,  the  Jews  were 
forbidden  to  own  land  and  were  forced  by  constant 
persecutions  as  well  as  by  the  necessity  of  wander- 
ing from  place  to  place  to  engage  in  trade  or  busi- 
ness. Not  secure  from  oppression  in  any  place 
Avhere  they  settled,  being  in  constant  dread  of 
forced  exile  from  places  where  they  made  their 
homes,  the  Jews  had  to  keep  their  property  in  a 
form  that  is  easily  portable,  so  as  to  be  ready  to 
move  on  at  the  command  of  prince  or  priest.  The 
teacher  may  also,  in  this  connection,  elaborate  upon 
the  desirability  of  a  return  to  the  soil  on  the  part 
of  the  Jews,  wherever  that  is  possible,  and  upon 
the  beauty  and  security  of  the  farmer's  life. 

RESUME 

The  main  point  of  distinction  between  the  Jew- 
ish and  the  secular  calendar  is  that  while  the  latter 
is  based  upon  the  calculation  of  the  revolutions  of 
the  earth  around  the  sun,  the  former  follows  the 
reckoning  of  the  revolutions  of  the  moon  around 
the  earth.  The  necessity  of  adjusting  the  lunar  to 
the  solar  calendar,  so  that  the  festivals  should  come 
in  the  proper  seasons  of  the  year,  was  realized  very 
early  in  Jewish  history,  hence  the  intercalation  of 
an  additional  month  in  leap  years.  The  scientific 
character  of  the  calendar  is  thus  maintained,  and 

33 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

the  festivals  still  fall  in   their  proper  agricultural 
seasons. 

The  arrangement  of  the  calendar  and  the  preser- 
vation of  its  integrity  v^ere  always  regarded  of  the 
greatest  importance.  Only  the  Highest  Court  in 
Jerusalem  was  privileged  to  fix  the  New  Moon  and 
the  announcement  thereof  was  regarded  as  a  most 
solemn  act.  This  helped  to  keep  the  solidarity  of 
the  Jewish  people  and  the  integrity  of  the  institu- 
tions of  Judaism  intact.  There  is  nothing  that  di- 
vides a  people  so  much  as  the  observance  of  the 
festivals  on  different  days.  Witness  the  attempt 
of  all  schismatic  sects  to  tamper  with  the  calendar. 
Jeroboam,  the  early  Christians,  the  Karaites,  and 
other  sects,  who  sought  to  break  up  the  solidarity 
of  the  Jewish  people,  began  with  changing  the  cal- 
endar and  the  dates  of  the  festivals. 

The  observance  of  the  second-day  holiday  by  the 
people  living  at  a  distance  from  Jerusalem  was  in 
consonance  with  this  principle.  They  felt  that  it 
was  necessary  that  all  Jews  should  keep  the  holi- 
days on  the  same  day  and  were  willing  to  undergo 
the  inconvenience  of  abstaining  from  labor  on  an 
additional  day,  so  that  they  should  not  fall  in  any 
error  and  thus  be  separated  from  the  central  body. 
While  the  reason  for  this  no  more  exists,  observant 
Jews  still  adhere  to  this  "Minhag"  (custom),  which 
has  assumed  the  sanctity  of  law  through  long  usage. 

The  three  festivals  of  the  Jewish  calendar  have 
a  double  meaning.  Originally  agricultural  in  char- 
acter,^ they  later  assumed  the  additional  historic 
meanings,  with  reference  to  the  events  clustering 
about  the  birth  of  the  Jewish  nation.  In  the  course 
of  tirne,  the  historic  reasons  became  predominant, 
especially  after  the  Jews  had  ceased  to  be  an  agri- 
cultural people. 

34 


The  Jeivish  Calendar — The  Festivals 


Their  value  in  arousing  the  historic  consciousness 
of  the  Jew  cannot  be  overestimated.  They  stir  up 
feeHngs  of  loyalty  and  patriotism,  by  bringing  to 
mind  the  glories  of  Israel's  past.  Still,  it  is  the  re- 
ligious element  in  them  that  is  most  important. 
Loyalty  in  Jewish  history  was  always  identified 
with  loyalty  to  Israel's  God. 

The  agricultural  element  in  these  festivals  should 
1)e  brought  out  and  explained  even  at  the  present 
time. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  the  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the 
Jewish  calendar  important  for  the  teacher? 

2.  What  is  the  basis  of  the  Jewish  calendar,  and 
why  are  the  months  alternately  of  29  and  30  days 
each?  Why  is  an  exception  made  in  the  months  of 
Heshvan   and   Kislev? 

3.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  Jewish  leap  year 
and  why  it  was  found  necessary  to  establish  the 
same. 

4.  How  was  the  New  Moon  fixed  in  early  times? 
Why  was  so  much  importance  attached  to  the 
privilege  of  fixing  the  date  of  the  New  Moon? 

5.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  second-day  Festi- 
val?    Give  reasons  pro  and  con  for  its  observance. 

6.  Why  was  the  New  Moon  observed  as  a  solemn 
festival?  How  much  of  its  original  character  is 
still  maintained? 

7.  Mention  the  months  of  the  Jewish  calendar 
and  the  chief  festivals  and  fast  days. 

8.  What  is  the  original  and  the  later  meaning  of 
the  three  most  important  festivals? 

35 


Methods  of  Teaching  tJie  Jewish  Religion 


9.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  term  Jewish  Con- 
sciousness. 

10.  What  is  the  characteristic  distinction  be- 
tween the  Jewish  national  holidays  and  the  national 
holidays  of  other  peoples?  Explain  this  in  detail, 
giving  examples. 


36 


III.    PASSOVER 

Significance  of  the  Festival. — While  originally  an 
agricultural  feast,  marking  the  early  harvest,  the 
Passover  festival  later  became  so  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  the  events  connected  with  the  redemp- 
tion of  our  ancestors  from  Egypt  as  to  lose  a  great 
deal  of  its  original  meaning.  In  the  ritual  the 
festival  is  known  as  "the  season  of  our  redemp- 
tion," and  the  other  names  by  which  it  is  desig- 
nated, as  "Passover"  or  "Pesach"  or  "the  Feast  of 
Unleavened  Bread"  (Hag  ha-Mazzot)  are  also  as- 
sociated with  the  great  event  of  the  Exodus  from 
Egypt.  This  was  the  epoch-making  event  in  the 
early  history  of  our  people  and  many  ceremonies 
and  observances  enjoined  in  the  Bible  find  their 
reason  in  it.  Even  the  Sabbath  day,  the  most 
sacred  institution  of  Judaism,  is  connected  with  the 
Exodus  from  Egypt  (Deuteronomy  5:15).  Form- 
ing the  starting  point  in  Israel's  national  existence, 
the  redemption  from  Egypt  may  very  well  be  com- 
pared with  our  own  American  Independence  Day. 
That  this  event  should  never  be  forgotten,  that 
Israel  should  always  remember  the  day  on  which 
he  became  free  from  bondage,  so  that  he  might  be- 
come God's  people,  numerous  observances  and 
ceremonies  were  prescribed  in  the  Bible  and  by 
the  Rabbis  for  the  proper  celebration  of  the  great 
event  year  after  year. 

In  their  symbolic  way,  the  Rabbis  compared  the 
Exodus  from  Egypt  to  the  period  of  betrothal,  the 
time  when  Israel  became  the  bride  of  God,  which 

n 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 


culminated  in  the  complete  union  at  Mt.  Smai.  This 
idea  finds  expression  in  the  custom  of  readmg  the 
book  of  the  "Song  of  Songs"  during  the  festival, 
although  the  idea  of  the  awakening  of  nature  to 
new  life  in  the  spring  of  the  year  is  also  suggested 
in  this  idyl. 

Symbols  of  the  Festival.— The  most  prominent 
features  in  the  observance  of  Passover  are  the  ab- 
stention from  leavened  bread  during  the  week  of 
the  festival,  the  home  ceremonies  of  the  Seder 
nights  and  the  special  services  in  the  synagogue. 
In  Temple  times,  the  offering  of  the  Paschal  lamb 
on  the  eve  of  Passover  formed  an  important  part 
in  the  proper  observance  of  the  Festival. 

The  Paschal  Lamb.— In  anticipation  of  the  great 
miracle  in  connection  with  the  plague  of  the  first 
born,  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  were  commanded  to 
slay  a  lamb  or  a  goat,  sprinkle  some  of  its  blood 
on  the  doorposts  of  their  houses,  roast  its  meat  and 
eat  it  on  the  night  of  the  departure.  The  blood  on 
the  doorposts  was  to  be  a  sign  for  the  Angel  of 
Death,  who  was  to  slay  the  first  born  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, to  pass  over  the  houses  of  the  Israehtes.  The 
meat  of  the  lamb  was  to  be  eaten  in  family  groups, 
all  the  members  fully  dressed  for  travel,  with 
loins  girded,  shoes  on  their  feet  and  staves  in  their 
hands,  so  as  to  be  ready  for  the  call  to  depart. 

It  was  ordained  that  this  ceremony  become  an 
annual  institution,  and,  in  Temple  times,  it  was  ob- 
served with  much  elaborate  detail.  All  the  people 
assembled  in  Jerusalem  for  the  celebration  of  the 
feast  divided  themselves  into  groups  or  societies, 
each  group  or  society  provided  with  a  lamb.  When 
the  lamb  was  killed  and  its  blood  poured  on  the 

38 


Passover 


altar,  the  Levites  chanted  the  Hallel  (Psalms  of 
Praise)  accompanied  by  musical  instruments.  After 
the  blood  was  sprinkled  on  the  altar  and  the  entrails 
removed,  the  lamb  was  taken  home  and  roasted 
whole  and  then  eaten  by  the  assembled  group 
amidst  songs  of  thanksgiving.  The  teacher  will  do 
well  to  dwell  upon  this  elaborate  ceremony  at 
length. 

While  the  ceremony  itself  became  obsolete  with 
the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  many  of  its  elements 
have  been  retained  in  the  Seder  service.  The 
roasted  shank-bone  on  the  Seder  plate  is  the  sym- 
bol of  the  Paschal  lamb. 

Unleavened  Bread. — In  more  modern  days,  the 
most  distinguishing  feature  of  the  festival  is  the 
abstention  from  eating  leavened  bread  or  any  food 
prepared  with  leaven.  The  commandment  to  eat 
unleavened  cakes,  as  a  memorial  of  the  Exodus, 
when  the  Israelites  had  to  eat  their  bread  in  that 
state,  because  of  their  hurry  to  leave  Egypt,  car- 
ried with  it  the  prohibition  against  partaking  of 
any  leavened  bread  during  the  festival  week.  This 
prohibition  is  repeated  many  times  in  the  Bible 
and  is  extended  to  include  not  only  the  actual  con- 
sumption of  leavened  bread,  but  also  the  posses- 
sion of  it.  "Seven  days  shall  there  be  no  leaven 
found  in  your  houses."  (Exodus  12:  19.)  Hence 
the  custom  of  searching  for  leaven  on  the  evening 
preceding  the  festival  and  the  burning  of  all  re- 
maining leaven  on  the  day  preceding  it.  The  He- 
brew names  for  these  customs  are  Bedikat  Hamez 
and  Biur  Hamez,  respectively. 

Jews,  at  all  times,  were  very  scrupulous  in  the 
observance  of  this  law  and  took  great  care  not  to 
violate  it  in  the  slightest  detail.    Not  only  did  they 

39 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

abstain  from  partaking  of  leavened  bread  or  of  any 
articles  of  food  prepared  with  leaven,  but  they 
v^ould  not  use  on  Passover  even  the  utensils  that 
were  in  use  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  unless  they 
underwent  a  thorough  process  of  ritual  cleansing, 
so  that  any  particle  of  leaven  absorbed  in  them 
might  be  destroyed  or  extracted.  In  most  Jewish 
households,  separate  sets  of  dishes  and  kitchen 
utensils  are  kept  from  year  to  year  for  Passover 
use  only. 

The  women  of  Israel,  especially,  have  evinced 
their  love  and  affection  for  this  holy  feast  in  many 
ways.  Weeks  before  the  festival  preparations  are 
begun  by  the  pious  Jewish  housewife.  The  whole 
house  undergoes  a  thorough  cleansing,  all  leaven  is 
gotten  out  of  the  way,  and  the  best  of  everything 
is  set  aside  for  the  holiday.  All  the  members  of 
the  household  are  made  to  anticipate  with  joy  the 
advent  of  the  Passover.  The  poorest  person  en- 
deavors to  bring  more  cheer  into  the  household  by 
adding  something  new,  something  that  was  wished 
for,  by  renovating  the  house,  providing  new  gar- 
ments for  the  members  of  the  family.  No  wonder, 
then,  that  the  Passover  season  is  looked  upon  as 
the  happiest  time  in  the  year,  by  both  young  and 
old. 

The  Seder. — The  Seder  observed  on  the  first  two 
evenings  of  the  festival,  and  in  some  families  on 
the  first  evening  only,  retains  many  of  the  elements 
that  made  the  observance  of  the  festival  so  glorious 
in  Temple  times,  although  the  main  feature,  the 
paschal  lamb,  is  necessarily  omitted.  It  emphasizes 
God's  protection  over  His  people  Israel,  and  helps 
to  bring  out  most  prominently  the  hand  of  God  in 
Jewish  history.  In  times  of  trouble  and  distress, 
of  persecution  and  dire  misfortune,  the  message  of 

40 


Passover 


the  Seder  always  helped  to  brighten  the  anguished 
heart  and  eheer  the  drooping  spirit.  God,  the  re- 
deemer of  Israel,  "who  never  sleepeth  nor  slum- 
bereth,'*  who  has  shown  His  love  and  protection  to 
Israel  in  Egypt,  will  yet  again  bring  salvation  to 
Israel  and  redeem  it  from  the  different  kinds  of 
slaveries  to  which  it  has  been  subjected.  This 
sentiment  prompted  the  unfortunate  Jews  in  Spain 
to  hide  in  cellars  and  caves  and  celebrate  the  Seder 
at  the  risk  of  their  lives.  This  sentiment  gave  the 
Jews  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  courage  and  hope  to 
persevere  in  their  religion  and  endure  all  hardships 
for  its  sake.  All  the  dangers  of  the  ritual  blood 
accusation,  all  the  horrors  of  the  Inquisition,  could 
not  make  them  give  up  this  beautiful  ceremony, 
which  always  stimulated  them  with  new  hopes, 
with  new  faith  and  new  courage  to  battle  for  the 
right  and  suffer  for  it,  if  need  be. 

There  is  also  a  personal  element  in  the  Seder 
which  should  be  emphasized  at  this  point.  The 
union  of  the  members  of  every  household  around 
the  Seder  table,  all  moved  by  a  common  emotion 
and  participating  in  a  common  worship,  has  ever 
been  one  of  the  most  potent  influences  in  preserv- 
ing and  strengthening  family  relationships. 

Family  loyalty  and  family  pride  are  among  the 
chief  sources  of  our  continued  existence  and  na- 
tional greatness.  The  novelist,  the  poet  and  the 
artist  could  find  no  better  theme  for  the  play  of 
their  imagination  than  this  happy  family  reunion, 
brought  about  annually  at  the  Seder  service,  when 
Jewish  chastity,  family  purity  and  family  devotion 
are  brought  out  in  greatest  relief.  The  Jewish 
home  then  assumes  its  real  function.  It  becomes 
a  sanctuary  of  the  Lord,  where  love,  loyalty  and 
devotion  to  a  sacred  cause  are  the  dominating  fac- 

41 


Methods  of  Teaching   the  Jezvish  Religion 

tors  in  the  hearts  of  its  members.  They  are  as 
priests  serving  in  unison  the  Most  High  at  the 
Seder  table,  which  is  the  symbol  of  the  altar  in  the 
sanctuary. 

Symbols  of  the  Seder. — "Seder"  means  order  and 
is  applied  here  to  the  order  of  service  arranged  for 
the  evening.  For  this  is  not  merely  a  meal ;  in  fact, 
the  meal  is  only  an  incident  in  the  ordained  form 
of  worship  and  thanksgiving.  Primarily  a  sacri- 
ficial meal,  it  still  partakes  of  the  holiness  and  solem- 
nity of  such  an  occasion. 

The  table  is  set  with  the  very  best  and  finest  one 
can  afford.  The  best  dishes,  the  finest  silver,  the 
finest  table  linen  are  used.  In  front  of  the  head  of 
the  family  the  symbols  of  the  Passover  are  arranged 
on  a  special  dish.  There  are  the  three  Mazzot,  the 
bitter  herbs  and  other  vegetables,  salt  water,  in 
which  the  vegetables  are  dipped,  and  Haroset  (a 
confection  made  of  nuts  and  wine),  in  wdiich  the 
bitter  herbs  are  dipped,  a  roasted  bone  and  a  roasted 
egg,  symbolizing  the  paschal  offering  and  the  fes- 
tival offering,  respectively.  Every  member  of  the 
house  is  provided  with  a  cup  of  wine,  which  is  filled 
four  times  and  drunk  after  the  appropriate  blessing 
has  been  recited.  The  services  of  the  evening  have 
been  arranged  and  compiled  in  a  special  book,  called 
the  Haggadah,  which  is  usually  provided  with 
quaint  illustrations,  so  as  to  make  it  attractive  to 
the  children.  Beginning  with  the  recital  of  the 
events  connected  with  the  great  deliverance  from 
Egypt,  the  Haggadah  also  contains  a  number  of 
hymns  and  songs  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  as 
well  as  some  folk-songs  and  ditties. 

Most  of  the  ceremonies  connected  with  the  Seder 
service  are  intended  primarily  to  arouse  the  inter- 

42 


Passover 


est  of  the  children  and  make  them  acquainted  with 
the  significance  of  the  occasion.  Indeed,  the  child 
is  made  the  hero  of  that  ancient  and  beautiful  cere- 
mony and  is  encouraged  to  ask  questions  and  to 
participate  in  the  service.  Together  with  his  elders, 
the  child  is  permitted  to  drink  of  the  wine  and  is 
given  a  morsel  of  the  bitter  herbs  to  taste.  He  is 
even  permitted  to  indulge  in  his  childish  pranks, 
as  long  as  these  help  to  keep  him  awake  to  the  im- 
portance of  the  occasion.  The  narrative  of  the 
Haggadah  is  practically  a  reply  to  the  questions 
which  the  child  is  stimulated  to  ask  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  service,  and  it  is  put  in  that  simple  form, 
interspersed  with  little  stories  and  anecdotes,  so 
that  the  child  may  understand. 

A  special  goblet  of  wine,  placed  in  the  center  of 
the  table,  but  not  tasted,  is  designated  as  **the  cup 
of  Elijah."  Elijah,  the  prophet,  that  mysterious 
character  in  the  Bible,  appearing  suddenly  on  the 
scene  and  evincing  such  indomitable  courage  and 
such  a  fervent  faith,  and  disappearing  as  mysteri- 
ously, has  been  made  a  most  prominent  hero  in 
later  Jewish  legend.  He  is  especially  designated 
as  the  messenger  of  the  final  redemption  (compare 
Malachi  2>:2Z,  24).  It  was  but  natural  that  the 
story  of  the  first  redemption  should  remind  the  op- 
pressed Jew  of  the  hope  of  a  future  redemption  and 
of  the  promises  made  for  a  great  and  glorious  des- 
tiny by  prophet  and  seer.  In  giving  expression  to 
this  hope,  a  cup  of  wine  is  prepared  to  welcome  the 
eagerly  awaited  prophet,  and  when  the  service  is 
resumed,  after  the  meal,  the  door  is  opened  to  ad- 
mit the  expected  guest.  It  is  in  agreement  with 
this  sentiment  that  the  service  is  concluded  with 
the  exclamation,  "Next  year  in  Jerusalem,"  and 
that  during  the  Sabbath  of  Hoi  ha-Moed,  i.e.,  the 

43 


Methods  of  Teaching   the  Jewish  Religion 


week  days  of  the  festival,  the  portion  from  the 
Prophets  (Haftarah)  is  taken  from  Ezekiel  (37: 
1-14),  where  that  beautiful  picture  of  the  valley  of 
the  dry  bones  restored  to  new  life  by  the  will  of 
God  is  intended  to  strengthen  our  hope  for  the  re- 
vival of  our  ideals  and  the  renewal  of  God's  cove- 
nant with  us. 

For  further  explanation  of  the  details  of  the 
Seder  ceremony,  the  teacher  is  referred  to  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Jewish  Encyclopedia,  articles  ''Haggadah  shel 
Pesach,"  "Passover  Sacrifice,"  "Seder." 

Friedlander,  "The  Jewish  Religion,"  pp.  379-388. 

Green,  "The  Revised  Haggadah,"  London,  1897. 

Cowen,  "The  Seder  Service." 

Rosenau,  "Seder  Haggadah"  and  "Jewish  Cere- 
monial Institutions  and  Customs." 

"The  Union  Haggadah."  Central  Conference  of 
American  Rabbis. 

The  Agricultural  Element. — The  agricultural  ele- 
ment in  the  observance  of  the  Passover  festival  is 
not  entirely  neglected  even  in  the  present  time. 
Passover  marked  the  period  when  the  first  barley, 
sown  in  the  winter,  had  become  ripe.  In  accord- 
ance with  an  ancient  interpretation  of  Leviticus 
23:11,  an  offering,  consisting  of  an  Onier  (about 
half  a  gallon)  of  barley,  was  brought  to  the  sanctu- 
ary on  the  second  day  of  Passover.  The  enjoy- 
ment of  the  new  fruit  was  prohibited  until  this  of- 
fering was  brought,  indicating  the  dependence  of 
the  farmer  on  God's  gracious  bounty,  to  whose 
glory  the  first  fruit  is  offered  as  a  symbol  of  grati- 
tude. From  this  day,  49  days  or  seven  complete 
weeks  were  counted,  and  on  the  fiftieth  day  the 
harvest  feast  (Shabuot)  was  celebrated.    This  cere- 

44 


Passover 


niony  is  called  "counting  the  omer,"  and  is  still 
literally  observed  by  devout  Jews,  who,  after  the 
evening  service  of  each  day  during  these  seven 
weeks  (days  of  Sefirah  or  Omer),  solemnly  pro- 
nounce the  number  of  days  since  the  second  day 
of  Passover,  preceding  this  with  an  appropriate 
blessing. 

Note. — During  this  period  of  Sefirah,  i.e.,  the 
time  intervening  between  Passover  and  Shabuot, 
and  especially  during  the  month  of  lyar,  many  mis- 
fortunes happened  to  the  Jews,  especially  during 
the  time  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Hadrian  and  later 
during  the  Crusades  in  the  Middle  Ages.  These 
days  are  thus  filled  with  sad  memories  of  massacres 
and  persecutions,  and  the  custom  was  established 
to  abstain  from  weddings  and  other  festivities  and 
rejoicings  during  this  period.  The  thirty-third  day 
of  the  Omer  (Lag  b'Omer)  is  called  "the  scholars' 
festival"  and  is  observed  as  a  semi-holiday,  because 
on  this  day  a  plague  that  had  raged  among  the 
disciples  of  R.  Akiba  is  said  to  have  stopped. 

Another  ceremony,  reminiscent  of  the  agricul- 
tural life  of  our  ancestors,  is  the  reading  of  a  prayer 
for  dew  (Tal)  during  the  morning  service  of  the 
first  day  of  Passover.  With  the  advent  of  Spring, 
when  the  rainy  season  in  Palestine  came  to  an  end, 
the  Jewish  farmer  prayed  that  the  refreshing  dew 
might  descend  on  all  vegetation  during  the  hot  sea- 
son that  was  coming.  From  that  day  on  the  regu- 
lar prayer  for  rain  is  discontinued. 

The  Other  Days  of  the  Festival.— All  the  eight 
(or  seven)  days  of  the  festival  are  alike  in  regard 
to  the  prohibition  against  partaking  of  leaven. 
Only  the  first  and  last  two  days  (or  one  day),  ho\v- 
ever,  are  observed  as  holy  days,  when  no  work  is 

45 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

done.  The  four  (or  five)  middle  days  are  known 
as  Hoi  ha-Moed  and  are  observed  as  semi-holidays. 
While  it  is  permitted  to  attend  to  the  ordinary  oc- 
cupations during  these  days,  the  solemnity  and  joy- 
ousness  of  the  feast  are  emphasized  in  the  special 
daily  service  by  the  reading  of  the  Hallel  and  the 
special  selections  from  the  Torah,  as  well  as  by  the 
abstention  from  such  kinds  of  labor  as  are  unneces- 
sary and  can  easily  be  postponed.  The  seventh 
day  of  the  feast  is  associated  with  the  passage  of 
the  Israelites  through  the  Red  Sea,  hence  the  Song 
of  Moses  is  then  read  from  the  Torah  and  refer- 
ences to  this  great  miracle  are  made  in  the  services 
of  the  day. 

RESUME 

The  passion  for  freedom  from  all  kinds  of  bond- 
age has  characterized  the  Jew  from  most  ancient 
antiquity.  The  spirit  of  democracy  breathes 
throughout  the  sacred  legislation,  incorporated  in 
the  Bible  and  later  developed  by  the  Rabbis.  The 
allegiance  to  the  one  God,  the  father  of  all,  always 
the  dominating  factor  in  Jewish  life,  precluded  any 
submission  to  the  yoke  of  tyranny  and  despotism. 
"For  unto  me  the  children  of  Israel  are  servants ; 
they  are  My  servants  whom  I  brought  forth  out 
of  the  land  of  Egypt"  (Leviticus  25:55),  to  which 
the  Rabbis  quaintly  add,  'They  are  my  servants, 
but  not  servants  of  servants."  The  fatherhood  of 
God  carries  with  it  the  idea  of  human  equality.  Re- 
member that  the  ideal  of  human  liberty,  so  strongly 
emphasized  in  the  celebration  of  the  Passover  fes- 
tival, has  become  the  possession  of  civilized  hu- 
manity^ only  within  the  past  century.  Remember 
that  it  is  only  fifty  years  now  since  we  had  to  carry 

46 


Passover 


on  a  destructive  war  in  our  own  land  in  order  to  vin- 
dicate this  glorious  principle.  Remember  that  more 
than  one-half  of  the  human  race  is  even  nov^  still 
held  in  bondage  to  the  rule  of  tyrants  and  their 
underlings.  Israel  proclaimed  the  ideals  of  liberty 
and  human  equality  thousands  of  years  ago,  and 
the  nations  of  the  world  only  now  begin  to  realize 
the  truth  and  wholesomeness  of  these  ideals. 

The  liberty  symbolized  by  the  Passover  festival, 
however,  is  the  freedom  to  devote  oneself  to  the 
higher  kind  of  service,  to  the  service  of  the  one 
God.  Israel  was  redeemed  from  Egyptian  bond- 
age for  the  purpose  of  assuming  the  higher  duties 
imposed  upon  it  at  Mt.  Sinai.  It  was  God  who 
redeemed  Israel,  in  order  to  take  it  unto  Himself 
as  His  people  (Exodus  6:7),  the  standard-bearer 
of  His  religion. 

As  the  national  birthday  of  Israel,  Passover 
stands  out  most  conspicuously  among  the  holidays 
of  the  Jewish  year.  It  is  thus  perhaps  the  most 
powerful  means  of  bringing  the  Jew  in  closer  touch 
with  his  past  history.  His  historic  consciousness 
becomes  alert  and  stimulated  by  the  observance  of 
this  festival.  Note  the  section  in  the  Haggadah  be- 
ginning with  "It  is  incumbent  upon  every  Israelite, 
in  every  generation,  to  look  upon  himself  as  if  he 
had  actually  gone  forth  from  Egypt."  The  Jew  of 
the  present  is  made  to  feel  more  strongly  his  rela- 
tionship with  the  past  of  Israel,  he  becomes  inspired 
with  the  glories  of  his  people  in  the  past  and  its 
hopes  for  a  still  more  glorious  future. 

This  idea  finds  its  most  beautiful  expression  in 
the  Seder  service.  The  family,  the  national  unit, 
assembled  around  one  table,  partaking  of  one  serv- 
ice, moved  by  one  great  emotion,  symbolizes  the 
union  of  all  Israel,  past,  present  and  future.     The 

47 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

child,  propounding  the  questions  to  his  elders,  is 
made  to  realize  that  he  is  a  member  of  even  a  larger 
family,  the  house  of  Jacob,  with  a  history  stretch- 
ing back  into  hoary  antiquity,  with  hopes  and  as- 
pirations for  a  grand  future,  with  great  ideals  for 
the  betterment  of  God's  world  and  the  improve- 
ment of  the  lot  of  God's  children.  The  symbols  of 
the  Seder  are  the  concrete  manifestations  of  Israel's 
proud  consciousness  of  the  possession  of  the  pre- 
cious right  of  freedom,  of  which  no  priest  or  poten- 
tate could  deprive  him,  and  his  yearnings  to  ac- 
quire this  right  for  the  rest  of  mankind. 

The  unleavened  bread,  the  symbol  of  the  haste 
with  which  the  Israelites  had  to  leave  Egypt,  so 
that  they  could  not  wait  for  the  dough  to  ferment, 
is  also  called  *'the  bread  of  affliction"  (Deuteronomy 
16:3),  reminding  us  of  the  poverty  and  affliction 
of  our  ancestors  while  under  Pharaoh's  yoke.  The 
unleavened  bread  is  thus  at  the  same  time  the  sym- 
bol of  slavery  and  of  deliverance. 

Emphasize  the  loving  care  with  which  the  Pass- 
over is  ushered  in  into  Jewish  households,  the  joy 
which  its  advent  brings  to  all  hearts,  the  many 
sacrifices  willingly  made  in  its  behalf.  Weeks  be- 
fore, preparations  are  begun  for  the  holy  festival 
in  joyous  anticipation.  The  process  of  baking  the 
Mazzot  by  every  family  individually  was  regarded 
as  a  great  event  and  looked  forward  to  with  pleas- 
ure, especially  by  the  younger  members  of  the  fam- 
ily. The  joy  that  accompanied  the  performance  of 
a  Mizwah,  a  religious  act,  needs  new  emphasis  at 
present. 

The  agricultural  reason  for  the  observance  of  the 
festival  finds  expression  in  several  ceremonies.  Re- 
fer to  Chapter  II  for  the  manner  of  treating  this 
special  phase  of  the  subject  in  modern  times. 

48 


Passover 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Explain  the  significance  of  the  Passover  fes- 
tival, with  reference  to  its  origin  and  later  develop- 
ment. Mention  the  various  names  by  which  it  is 
known  and  the  meaning  of  each. 

2.  Describe  the  origin  of  the  Paschal  offering 
and  the  details  of  its  observance  in  later  times. 
What  symbol  commemorates  this  offering? 

3.  What  does  the  unleavened  bread  symbolize? 
Why  is  it  also  called  *'the  bread  of  affliction"? 

4.  Describe  the  value  of  the  Seder  service  as  a 
means  of  preserving  national  solidarity  as  well  as 
family  loyalty. 

5.  Give  a  description  of  the  Seder  table,  explain- 
ing briefly  the  meaning  and  purpose  of  each  of  the 
symbols. 

6.  What  is  the  significance  of  the  "cup  of 
Elijah"? 

7.  Explain  the  term  "counting  the  Omer."  Why 
are  the  Omer  days  observed  as  a  period  of  mourn- 
ing? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  "Hoi  ha-Moed"?  How  are 
these  days  observed? 

9.  How  did  the  ideal  of  personal  liberty  express 
itself  in  Jewish  life  in  the  past?  What  interpreta- 
tion is  given  to  the  ideal  of  human  freedom  in  the 
Jewish  religion? 


49 


IV.     THE  FEAST  OF  WEEKS 
(SHABUOT) 

Meaning  of  Festival. — Shabuot,  or  the  Feast  of 
Weeks,  sometimes  also  called  "Pentecost"  (Greek 
for  the  ''fiftieth  day"),  like  Passover  and  Sukkot, 
was  primarily  a  purely  agricultural  feast.  The 
harvest  season  in  ancient  Palestine  extended  over 
seven  weeks.  Fifty  days  after  the  first  Omer  of 
barley  was  offered  on  the  altar  (see  Chapter  III), 
an  offering  of  two  loaves  was  brought  to  the  Tem- 
ple to  celebrate  the  beginning  of  the  wheat  har- 
vest. These  seven  weeks,  beginning  with  the  sec- 
ond day  of  Passover,  were  carefully  counted,  day 
by  day,  and  the  fiftieth  day  was  celebrated  as  the 
harvest  festival,  or  the  Festival  of  the  First  Fruits. 

An  additional  meaning,  which,  in  the  course  of 
time,  entirely  overshadowed  the  original  signifi- 
cance of  the  day,  was  later  given  to  the  Festival. 
It  was  celebrated  as  the  "Season  of  the  Giving  of 
the  Law"  at  Mount  Sinai.  In  the  Bible  itself,  the 
exact  day  of  the  Revelation  is  not  given,  although 
the  Scriptures  mention  that  it  occurred  in  the 
"third  month."  Tradition  fixed  the  day  as  the  sixth 
day  of  Sivan,  coinciding  with  the  day  of  the  ancient 
harvest  festival. 

The  First  Fruits  (Bikkurim). — The  natural  im- 
pulse to  dedicate  to  God  the  first  and  the  best  one 
possesses  (compare  the  sacrifices  of  Cain  and  Abel), 
thus  evincing  one's  gratitude  to  God  and  depend- 
ence on  Him,  finds  its  most  beautiful  expression  in 

50 


The  Feast  of  IVeeks 


the  ancient  ceremonies  connected  with  the  festival 
of  Shabuot.  The  Festival  is  designated  as  the 
''Day  of  the  First  Fruits"  (Numbers  28:26),  and, 
besides  the  offering  of  the  two  loaves,  the*  first 
fruits  of  the  wheat,  the  festival  ushered  in  the  sea- 
son, extending  to  the  feast  of  Tabernacles,  when 
the  farmer  brought  the  first  fruits  of  his  field  to 
Jerusalem  and  recited  in  the  presence  of  the  priest 
that  beautiful  prayer,  preserved  for  us  in  Deuter- 
onomy 26 :  5-10. 

The  whole  procedure  of  selecting  the  first  fruits 
(Bikkurim)  and  carrying  them  to  Jerusalem  was 
attended  with  several  inspiring  ceremonies.  On 
visiting  his  orchard  or  his  field  and  beholding  a 
ripe  grape,  fig  or  any  other  fruit,  the  farmer  would 
tie  a  string  around  it  and  say,  ''This  shall  be  among 
the  Bikkurim."  Later  on,  these  marked  fruits  were 
collected  and  deposited  in  baskets,  some  of  which 
were  richly  ornamented,  and  then  carried  in  state 
to  Jerusalem.  Those  who  lived  at  a  great  distance 
brought  dried  fruits,  while  those  living  near  by  car- 
ried the  original  fresh  fruits  designated  for  that 
purpose.  The  farmers  of  a  certain  district  assem- 
bled in  the  largest  town  of  the  district  and  remained 
in  the  open  market  over  night.  At  dawn  they  were 
summoned  by  the  announcement  of  the  officer  in 
charge,  exclaiming,  "Arise  ye,  and  let  us  go  up  to 
Zion,  unto  the  Lord  our  God."  Preceded  by  the 
sacrificial  ox,  with  horns  gilt  and  head  crowned 
with  olive  leaves,  the  pilgrims  proceeded  on  their 
way  with  the  accompaniment  of  music  to  the  Holy 
City.  When  quite  near  Jerusalem,  they  sent  a  mes- 
senger, who  announced  their  arrival.  Officers  from 
the  Temple  came  out  to  meet  them,  and  all  artisans 
on  the  road  stopped  from  their  work,  rose  from 
their  seats  and  extended  a  hearty  welcome  to  the 

51 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

pilgrims.  On  reaching  the  Temple,  they  were 
greeted  by  the  Levites,  chanting  the  verse,  "I  will 
extol  Thee,  O  Lord,  for  Thou  hast  raised  me  up, 
and  hast  not  suffered  mine  enemies  to  rejoice  over 
me"  (Psalms  30:2).  Then  each  man  recited  the 
declaration,  as  given  in  Deuteronomy  26:3,  and 
deposited  his  basket  with  the  priest  (see  Hochman, 
"Jerusalem  Temple  Festivities,"   London,   1909). 

Aside  from  the  intrinsic*  beauty  of  this  ceremony, 
which  appeals  so  strongly  to  the  imagination,  it 
contains  also  several  wholesome  moral  and  religious 
lessons,  upon  which  the  teacher  should  not  neglect 
to  dilate.  The  idea  that  all  wealth  comes  from  God 
and  that  the  possession  of  it  is  given  to  man  only 
as  a  trust,  which  he  may  use  to  proper  and  whole- 
some ends,  is  strikingly  emphasized  in  this  cere- 
mony. The  farmer,  more  than  any  other  man,  is 
conscious  of  his  dependence  upon  a  kind  Provi- 
dence. He  knows  that  all  his  labors  in  the  field 
would  be  of  no  avail  unless  God  sent  the  rain  in 
its  season  and  the  sunshine  in  its  time.  He,  there- 
fore, feels  that  the  first  fruit  of  his  labors  belong 
to  God,  and  only  after  this  sacred  obHgation  has 
been  discharged  does  he  permit  himself  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  products  of  his  field  and  orchard.  The 
expression  given  to  this  sentiment  of  dependence 
on  a  benign  Providence  in  words  of  praise  and 
thanksgiving  to  God  shows  that  the  Israelite  of  old 
fully  realized  that  the  source  of  all  blessings  was 
God,  to  whom  alone  everything  belonged. 

The  ceremony  further  emphasized  the  responsi- 
bility of  wealth,  "And  thou  shalt  rejoice  in  all  the 
good  which  the  Lord  thy  God  hath  given  unto  thee, 
and  unto  thy  house,  thou,  and  the  Levite,  and  the 
stranger  that  is  in  the  midst  of  thee"  (Deuteron- 
omy 26:11).     The   wealth,   with   which   God   has 

52 


Tlic  Feast  of  Weeks 


blessed  him,  he  must  share  with  the  less  fortunate 
ones,  *'the  Levite  and  the  stranger."  The  obligation 
that  the  rich  owe  to  the  poor,  the  duty  of  sharing 
one's  wealth  with  the  widow  and  the  orphan,  the 
stranger  and  the  destitute,  has  always  formed  a 
unique  feature  in  Jewish  life.  The  term  ''charity" 
has  no  equivalent  in  the  Hebrew  language.  *'Zeda- 
kah"  (justice)  is  the  nearest  approach  to  what  is 
designated  by  us  today  as  charity.  Everything  be- 
longs to  God,  and  when  we  give  of  our  possession 
to  the  poor,  we  are  only  doing  God's  wall,  as  His 
trustees.  The  very  blessing  of  wealth  carries  with 
it  this  sacred  obligation,  the  discharge  of  which  is 
in  agreement  with  the  command  of  God.  The  pos- 
session of  wealth  is  regarded  by  some  people  as  the 
greatest  joy  in  itself.  They  find  satisfaction  in 
hoarding  up  large  sums  of  money,  and  would  not 
part  with  it,  even  for  their  own  needs.  Such  pleas- 
ure is  sordid,  vulgar  and  ungodly.  The  greatest 
joy  of  wealth  is  when  it  is  shared  with  the  ''Levite 
and  the  stranger."  It  is  only  then  that  one  may 
truly  "rejoice  before  God." 

The  Festival  of  Revelation. — ^After  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Temple,  when  the  Jews  ceased  to  be  an 
agricultural  people,  the  significance  of  the  festival 
of  Shabuot  underwent  a  great  change.  It  then  as- 
sumed the  great  historic  significance,  commemorat- 
ing the  Revelation  on  Mt.  Sinai  and  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  Ten  Commandments.  While  traces  of 
the  earlier  meaning  of  the  festival  have  been  re- 
tained, the  historic  reason,  because  of  its  great  im- 
portance and  its  universal  application,  has  become 
the  dominating  motive  for  the  observance  of  the 
feast. 

The  work  of  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites 
53 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 


from  Egyptian  bondage  was  not  complete  until  the 
Revelation,  fifty  days  later.  The  IsraeUtes  were 
taken  out  of  Egypt  for  a  certain  purpose,  and  that 
purpose  was  accompUshed  only  after  they  reached 
Mt.  Sinai.  From  the  very  first,  the  purpose  was 
made  clear  to  Moses  (see  Exodus  3:  12),  and  con- 
stantly repeated  by  him  in  his  numerous  interviews 
with  Pharaoh.  The  Israelites  were  enslaved,  op- 
pressed and  maltreated.  Their  cry  went  up  to  God, 
and  the  task  was  set  before  Moses  to  become  God's 
messenger  and  liberate  his  people  from  the  oppres- 
sive yoke.  They  were,  however,  to  be  liberated 
only  as  God's  people.  They  were  to  become  free 
so  that  they  might  become  servants  of  God.  They 
were  to  realize  that  it  was  the  Lord  their  God  who 
brought  them  out  of  the  bondage  of  the  Egyptians 
(see  Exodus  6:7).  The  great  proclamation  made 
to  the  Israelites  from  Mt.  Sinai  was  thus  the  com- 
pletion of  the  work  of  liberation. 

The  close  relationship  between  liberty  and  law  is 
thus  brought  out  in  greatest  relief.  Freedom  may 
become  most  dangerous,  if  it  is  not  properly  regu- 
lated and  guided.  The  Revelation  emphasizes  the 
fact  that  liberty  is  not  an  end,  but  a  condition  nec- 
essary in  the  attainment  of  the  highest  ends  of  life. 
The  Israelites  were  liberated  from  the  yoke  of  bond- 
age, so  that  they  might  devote  themselves  to  the 
service  of  God.  "Only  those  are  free,"  say  our 
Rabbis  "who  devote  themselves  to  the  observance 
of  God's  laws."  A  Declaration  of  Independence 
which  is  not  immediately  followed  by  a  just  and 
equitable  Constitution  may  bring  untold  miseries 
to  a  nation.  The  Revelation  thus  becomes  the 
crowning  glory  of  the  Exodus.  In  the  poetical  lan- 
guage of  the  Rabbis,  "God  betrothed  Israel  as^his 
bride  on  Passover  and  wedded  her  on  Shabuot." 

54 


The  Feast  of  Weeks 


The  Ten  Commandments. — The  Ten  Com- 
mandments, the  proclamation  of  which  is  commem- 
orated by  this  festival,  have  justly  been  called 
the  alphabet  of  the  religious  and  moral  life,  the 
very  foundation  upon  which  all  human  conduct 
should  be  based.  They  are  universal  and  eter- 
nal. Both  Jew  and  Gentile  place  them  at  the  fore- 
front of  their  codes  of  law.  They  have  exercised 
their  beneficent  influence  on  human  life  through- 
out all  generations,  because  of  their  simplicity  and 
comprehensiveness.  Their  universality  and  eter- 
nal application  are  the  best  proofs  of  their  divine 
origin. 

The  Jew  naturally  experiences  a  thrill  of  justifi- 
able pride  at  the  thought  that  it  was  to  him  that  this 
grand  proclamation  was  first  made.  He  feels  grate- 
ful for  the  distinction  thus  conferred  upon  him  in 
that  it  was  vouchsafed  to  the  genius  of  the  Jew  to 
apprehend  and  effectively  to  proclaim  to  the  world 
these  fundamentals  of  morality.  For  this  distinc- 
tion he  expresses  his  gratitude  on  many  occasions 
in  his  liturgy.  This  feeling  of  pride,  however, 
always  carried  with  it  the  feeling  of  greater  respon- 
sibility. To  be  a  member  of  the  "kingdom  of  priests 
and  the  holy  nation"  confers  on  one  many  privileges, 
for  which  one  ought  to  be  grateful,  but  it  also  irn- 
poses  many  duties  which  one  must  discharge  in 
order  to  be  worthy  of  the  name.  The  priest  must  be 
more  careful  in  his  conduct,  more  particular  in  reg- 
ulating his  life,  more  scrupulous  in  the  discharge 
of  his  duties,  because  he  is  looked  up  to  as  a  model 
for  others  to  follow.  This  is  what  the  Rabbis  meant 
by  the  term  "Kiddush  ha-Shem"  (the  sanctification 
of  God's  name),  and  its  opposite,  "Hillul  ha-Shem" 
(the  profanation  of  God's  name).  An  unseemly  act 
on  the  part  of  a  member  of  the  "chosen  people"  re- 

55 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 


fleets  unfavorably  upon  Him  who  chose  them,  and 
causes,  so  to  say,  a  stain  on  God's  name;  while  a 
noble  deed,  a  heroic  act  on  the  part  of  God's  chosen 
people,  helps  to  glorify  God's  name  on  earth.  These 
thoughts  should  dominate  us,  especially  on  the 
recurrence  of  this  glorious  festival.  Justly  proud  of 
the  great  distinction  of  being  God's  chosen  people, 
humbly  grateful  for  the  great  honor,  we  should  also 
be  thoroughly  conscious  of  the  many  responsibilities 
it  brings  with  it  and  endeavor  to  discharge  them 
loyally  and  faithfully. 

Services  of  the  Festival. — ^Unlike  Passover  and 
Sukkot,  Shabuot  has  no  distinctive  ceremony. 
All  labor  is  forbidden,  as  on  other  holidays. 
The  services  in  the  synagogue  consist  in  the 
reading  of  the  regular  festival  ritual.  The  portion 
of  the  law  read  on  the  first  day  is  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  story  of  Revelation  as  recorded  in 
Exodus  19  and  20,  while  on  the  second  day  the  por- 
tion from  Deuteronomy  15:19-16:22,  which  gives  an 
account  of  the  three  pilgrim  festivals,  is  read.  The 
Haftarah  for  the  first  day  is  taken  from  the  first 
chapter  of  Ezekiel,  where  the  majesty  of  God  is 
described,  while  on  the  second  day,  the  "Prayer  of 
Habakuk"  (Habakuk  3)  is  read,  because  it  contains 
references  to  the  Revelation.  In  many  communities, 
the  Book  of  Ruth  is  read  during  the  festival,  because 
it  contains  the  most  complete  and  most  charming 
picture  of  agricultural  life  in  ancient  Palestine 
found  in  the  Bible.  The  fact  that  Ruth  evinced  such 
a  strong  faith  in  the  God  of  Israel  as  to  leave  her 
family  and  her  native  place  and  follow  the  wretched 
Naomi  to  Bethlehem,  makes  the  book  the  more 
suitable  for  this  festival.  Among  many  Jews,  it  is 
customary  to  spend  the  first  night  of  Shabuot  in 

56 


The  Feast  of  Weeks 


reading  selections  from  the  Torah  and  the  Prophets, 
as  well  as  from  Rabbinic  literature  which  are  com- 
piled in  a  book  called  Tikkun.  Some  spend  the 
whole  night  in  this  exercise,  while  others  stay  awake 
only  till  midnight.  The  custom  of  eating  food  pre- 
pared with  milk  on  Shabuot  is  probably  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  Torah  is  compared  to  milk  in  several 
places  in  the  Bible.  It  is  also  customary  to  decorate 
the  synagogues  and  the  homes  with  flowers  and 
plants,  suggestive  of  God's  gifts  through  nature. 

On  the  festival  of  Shabuot,  the  Jewish  child  was 
first  initiated  into  the  study  of  the  Jewish  religion 
and  the  Hebrew  language.  This  was  accompanied, 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  with  a  number  of  quaint  and 
symbolic  ceremonies.  (Read  Schechter,  ''Studies  in 
Judaism,"  pp.  302-3 ;  Abrahams,  "Jewish  Life  in  the 
Middle  Ages,"  p.  348  ff. ;  read  also  Abrahams,  "Fes- 
tival Studies,"  chapters  II  and  XII.)  In  more  mod- 
ern times,  where  the  ceremony  of  confirmation  has 
been  introduced,  this  ceremony  is  most  appropri- 
ately observed  on  the  feast  of  Shabuot. 


RESUME 

Both  in  its  primary  agricultural  character  and  its 
later  historic  nature,  the  religious  significance  of 
this  festival  is  most  potent.  As  the  harvest  festival, 
it  emphasizes  the  gratitude  we  owe  to  God  for  the 
blessings  of  abundance  and  plenty.  It  is  by  His 
will  and  through  His  command  that  the  forces  of 
nature  supply  the  needs  of  man  and  add  to  his 
comfort.  All  man's  efforts  and  labors,  while  neces- 
sary and  required,  will  not  succeed,  unless  God 
blesses  his  efforts  and  makes  his  labors  prosper. 
Hence  the  recognition  that  wealth  is  acquired  not 

57 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 


so  much  by  human  ingenuity  and  work,  as  by  the 
will  of  God. 

Judaism  permits  the  proper  use  of  wealth.  It  is 
opposed  to  all  manner  of  asceticism  and  unneces- 
sary self-abnegation.  It  enjoins,  however,  the  duty 
that  the  rich  owe  to  the  poor  with  such  emphasis  as 
to  identify  charity  with  justice.  Charity  is  compul- 
sory, according  to  the  Jewish  law.  Giving  is  a  relig- 
ious duty,  repeatedly  emphasized  in  the  Bible.  The 
Jews  were  designated  by  Rabbinic  tradition  as  "the 
merciful,  the  sons  of  the  merciful,"  and  this  char- 
acteristic they  retained  throughout  their  long  and 
varied  history.  The  Book  of  Ruth,  read  on  this  fes- 
tival, gives  us  a  picture  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
poor  were  cared  for  in  ancient  Palestine,  at  the  time 
of  the  harvest. 

Shabuot,  however,  has  in  later  times  become  the 
festival  of  religion  par  excellence.  It  commemorates 
that  great  event  when  the  nation  of  liberated  slaves 
was  instructed  in  the  manner  of  life,  which  a  free 
nation  should  lead.  Physical  Hberty  was  not  the 
end  of  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  but  the  condition 
which  made  it  possible  for  them  to  take  the  Ten 
Commandments  as  the  norm  of  their  future  national 
and  individual  existence. 

This  law,  which  gave  character  and  purpose  to 
the  liberated  slaves,  has  since  become  the  law  of  all 
civilized  humanity.  Truly  may  the  Jew  feel  proud 
of  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  to  whom  this  law 
was  entrusted.  But  the  distinction  carries  with  it 
increased  responsibilities.  Noblesse  oblige.  The 
Jew  must  prove  by  his  life  that  he  is  worthy  of  this 
distinction.  He  must  be  most  careful,  most  rigorous 
with  himself,  most  circumspect.  He  must  con- 
stantly guard  against  ''Hillul  ha-Shem."  (Read 
Deuteronomy  4:5-9.) 

58 


TJie  Feast  of  Weeks 


While  there  is  no  special  and  distinctive  ceremony 
prescribed  for  the  feast  of  Shabuot,  the  many  ob- 
servances of  the  day  which  v^^ere  elaborated  by  the 
people  in  the  course  of  the  centuries  evince  the 
great  love  and  affection  the  Jew  always  has  had  for 
the  law.  The  law  was  never  a  burden  to  him,  but 
a  source  of  the  greatest  delight. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  was  the  agricultural  significance  of  the 
festival  ? 

2.  Describe  briefly  the  ceremony  connected  with 
the  offering  of  the  "First  Fruits."  What  important 
lessons  may  be  learned  from  this  ceremony  for  pres- 
ent-day religious  and  moral  conduct? 

3.  What  relation  of  liberty  to  law  does  this  fes- 
tival teach? 

4.  What  are  the  emotions  that  the  reading  of  the 
Ten  Commandments  stir  up  in  the  heart  of  every 
Jew? 

5.  Explain  the  terms  "Kiddush  ha-Shem"  and 
"Hillul  ha-Shem."     Illustrate  by  examples. 

6.  Why  is  the  Book  of  Ruth  read  on  this  festival? 
What  should  be  our  attitude  towards  sincere  prose- 
lytes? 

7.  Give  the  reason  for  the  custom  of  decorating 
the  synagogue  and  home  with  flowers.  Of  eating 
food  prepared  with  milk. 

8.  Why  is  the  ceremony  of  confirmation  usually 
observed  on  Shabuot? 


59 


V.     THE  FEAST  OF  TABERNACLES 
(SUKKOT) 

Significance  of  Festival. — The  primary  signifi- 
cance of  this  festival  also  was  connected  with  the 
agricultural  life  of  ancient  Israel.  In  Exodus  23:16 
and  34:22  this  festival  is  designated  as  the  ''Feast 
of  Ingathering,"  and  in  Deuteronomy  16:13,  where 
it  is  named  "Feast  of  Tabernacles"  (as  also  in  Le- 
viticus 23:34),  it  is  directly  connected  also  with  the 
event  of  the  completion  of  the  harvest  season,  ''after 
thou  hast  gathered  in  from  thy  threshing-floor  and 
from  thy  wine-press."  The  original  character  of  the 
feast  is  thus  plainly  shown  to  have  been  that  of 
thanksgiving  to  God  for  the  bounties  of  nature  dur- 
ing the  past  year. 

The  historical  significance  of  the  feast  is  men- 
tioned in  Leviticus  23  :42-43,  immediately  after  the 
agricultural  reason  is  given  (ib.  v.  39).  "Ye  shall 
dwell  in  booths  seven  days ;  all  that  are  home-born 
in  Israel  shall  dwell  in  booths,  that  your  generations 
may  know,  that  I  made  the  children  of  Israel  to 
dwell  in  booths,  when  I  brought  them  out  of  the 
land  of  Egypt;  I  am  the  Lord  your  God."  The 
period  that  the  Israelites  spent  in  the  wilderness 
may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important 
epochs  in  Jewish  history.  It  was  then  that  Israel's 
character  and  destiny  were  formed.  Under  the 
guidance  of  the  great  law-giver,  the  nation  of  slaves 
was  transformed  into  God's  chosen  people.  Their 
faith  in  God  had  to  be  nurtured,  their  comprehension 
of  His  holy  law  had  to  be  developed,   and   their 

60 


The  Feast  of  Tabernacles 


character  as  the  rehgious  people  had  to  be  molded. 
It  was  then  that  God's  protection  and  care  of  them 
were  shown  most  plainly.  His  benign  Providence 
manifested  itself  to  them  at  every  step.  (Read 
Deuteronomy  8:2-18;  Jeremiah  2:6-7.)  To  com- 
memorate this  important  period  and  to  give  ever 
new  emphasis  to  the  idea  of  the  direction  of  God  in 
human  affairs  and  His  special  care  of  His  people 
Israel,  the  ancient  Feast  of  Ingathering  was  given 
the  additional  historical  meaning,  and  the  ancient 
ceremonies  connected  with  it  were  made  to  repre- 
sent also  the  ideas  and  events  connected  with  Israel's 
national  birth  and  formative  period  in  the  wilder- 
ness. 

The  Sukkah. — "Ye  shall  dwell  In  booths  seven 
days."  There  is  no  definite  description  given  in  the 
Bible  of  the  form  of  the  booth  and  the  manner  of 
its  construction,  nor  do  we  find  there  an  exact  defi- 
nition of  the  term  "dwell."  Tradition,  however,  has 
preserved  for  us  definite  rules  and  regulations  re- 
garding the  building  of  the  Sukkah  and  the  manner 
in  which  the  ceremony  should  be  observed.  The 
main  stress  is  laid  on  the  manner  of  roofing  it.  The 
Sukkah  must  not  be  covered  with  wide  boards,  but 
rather  with  branches  or  leaves,  sparsely  laid,  so  that 
the  stars  might  be  perceived  through  the  covering. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  very  slight  protection  against  the 
wind  or  rain,  thus  emphasizing  the  need  we  always 
have  of  God's  protection  and  guidance.  The  Israel- 
ites travelling  in  the  wilderness,  exposed  to  many 
dangers  and  trials,  found  protection  in  God,  their 
loving  Father.  The  pillar  of  cloud  led  them  on  their 
way  by  day  and  the  pillar  of  fire  lighted  the  way  for 
them  at  night.  (Exodus  13:21,  22.)  In  leaving  his 
house  for  the  frail  booth,  the  Israelite  of  today  lives 

61 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

again  the  experiences  of  his  ancestors  in  the  wilder- 
ness and  gives  new  emphasis  to  the  lesson  they 
learned,  to  trust  in  God  and  to  rely  entirely  on  His 
merciful  Providence. 

An  interesting  description  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  Sukkah  was  erected  in  ancient  times  is  found  in 
Nehemiah  8:14-18.  The  proclamation  was  made  to 
the  people :  "Go  forth  unto  the  mount  and  fetch 
olive  branches,  and  branches  of  wild  olive,  and  myr- 
tle branches,  and  palm  branches,  and  branches  of 
thick  trees,  to  make  booths,  as  it  is  written."  *'So 
the  people  went  forth,  and  brought  them,  and  made 
themselves  booths,  every  one  upon  the  roof  of  his 
house,  and  in  their  courts,  and  in  the  courts  of  the 
house  of  God,  and  in  the  broad  place  of  the  water 
gate  and  in  the  broad  place  of  the  gate  of  Ephraim.*' 

The  construction  of  the  Sukkah  in  later  times 
was  looked  forward  to  with  pleasurable  anticipa- 
tion by  young  and  old.  While  the  material  may 
have  been  prepared  weeks  ahead,  the  actual  building 
did  not  commence  until  the  night  after  the  Day  of 
Atonement.  Wearied  after  the  day's  fasting  and 
exacting  religious  exercises,  the  observant  Jew  dis- 
played his  devotion  to  his  religious  practices  by  pro- 
ceeding at  once,  with  hammer  in  hand,  to  the  per- 
formance of  a  new  Mizwah,  to  place  the  first  stake 
for  the  erection  of  the  Sukkah.  Children  were  espe- 
cially encouraged  to  take  part  in  the  building  and 
the  decoration  of  the  Sukkah.  The  decoration  con- 
sisted mainly  of  fruits  and  flowers,  the  best  and  fin- 
est obtainable  at  this  season  of  the  year,  although 
the  wealthier  Jews  also  brought  to  the  Sukkah  their 
finest  tapestries,  furniture  and  pictures.  (See  Rose- 
nau,  ''Jewish  Ceremonial  Institutions  and  Customs," 
pp.  126-7.) 

Show  to  the  child  pictures  illustrating  the  builds 
62 


The  Feast  of  Tabernacles 


ing  and  decoration  of  the  Sukkah.      (Read  Abra- 
hams, "Festival  Studies,"  Chapter  X.) 

The  Sukkah  is  to  serve  as  the  "dwelling"  house 
during  the  seven  days  of  the  Feast,  where  most  of 
one's  time  should  be  spent.  In  cold  climates  only 
the  meals  are  taken  in  the  Sukkah,  although  some 
also  sleep  there.  In  case  of  rain  or  inclement 
weather,  the  observant  Jew  satisfies  himself  with 
reciting  the  Kiddush  in  the  Sukkah.  A  special 
blessing  is  pronounced  at  each  meal  over  the  com- 
mandment to  dwell  in  booths. 

The  Four  Species. — The  original  nature  of  the 
festival,  as  a  thanksgiving  day  for  the  blessings  of 
the  harvest,  is  preserved  in  the  ceremony  of  taking 
the  four  species  of  vegetation  prescribed  in  Leviti- 
cus 23:40:  "And  ye  shall  take  you  on  the  first  day 
the  fruit  of  goodly  trees,  branches  of  palm  trees, 
and  boughs  of  thick  trees,  and  willows  of  the  brook, 
and  ye  shall  rejoice  before  the  Lord  your  God  seven 
days."  The  traditional  interpretation  fixes  ^  the 
meaning  of  these  four  species  to  include  the  citron 
(Etrog),  the  palm  branch  (Lulab),  three  myrtle 
twigs  (Hadassim),  and  two  willow  branches  (Ara- 
bot).  These  are  to  serve  as  symbols  of  the  entire 
realm  of  vegetation,  which  has  been  blest  by  the 
gracious  bounty  of  God.  The  myrtle  and  willow 
branches  are  tied  together  with  the  branch  of  the 
palm  tree  and  held  in  the  right  hand,  while  the 
citron  is  held  in  the  left  hand.  After  the  appropriate 
blessing  is  pronounced,  the  four  species  are  waved 
in  the  direction  of  the  four  points  of  the  compass ; 
also  forward  and  backward,  upward  and  downward ; 
thereby  acknowledging  the  sovereignty  of  God  over 
the  whole  universe.  They  are  also  held  and  thus 
>vaved  during  the  recitation  of  the  Hallel,  and  are 

62> 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 


held  in  the  hand  also  during  the  procession  round 
the  synagogue  at  the  Hoshana  prayer,  at  the  end  of 
the  service.  The  same  ceremony  is  observed  during 
the  morning  services  of  each  day  of  the  festival, 
except  on  the  Sabbath  day.  (In  the  Temple  this 
ceremony  wsls  observed  also  on  the  Sabbath,  but  in 
the  Synagogue  it  w^as  omitted  on  the  Sabbath,  be- 
cause of  the  apprehension  that  one  might  carry  the 
Lulab  from  place  to  place,  which  is  forbidden  on 
the  Sabbath  day.  The  same  reason  applies  also  to 
the  omission  of  the  use  of  the  Shofar  on  Rosh  ha- 
Shanah,  v^hen  it  falls  on  a  Sabbath.) 

Several  beautiful  symbolic  interpretations  are 
given  to  this  ceremony  by  the  Rabbis.  The  four 
species  are  compared  by  them  to  the  four  important 
organs  of  the  human  body:  the  heart  (etrog),  the 
spinal  cord  (lulab),  the  eye  (myrtle  leaf),  and  the 
lips  (willov^  leaf),  suggesting  the  thought  that  all 
the  members  of  the  body  should  unite  in  proclaim- 
ing God's  glory  and  singing  His  praises  (compare 
Psalms  35  :10).  Again  these  four  species  w^ere  com- 
pared to  four  classes  of  Jews :  the  pious  and  learned 
(Etrog,  possessing  taste  and  odor),  the  learned  but 
not  pious  (Lulab,  having  taste  but  no  odor),  pious 
and  not  learned  (Myrtle,  having  odor  and  no  taste), 
neither  pious  nor  learned  (Willow,  having  neither 
taste  nor  odor).  All  of  these  have  their  uses  in  the 
world,  as  all  these  species  of  vegetation  have  their 
uses  in  the  economy  of  nature.  The  union  of  all 
the  elements  in  the  nation,  even  as  the  four  species 
are  held  together,  will  give  strength  and  permanence 
to  Jewish  ideals  and  secure  national  solidarity. 

Pious  Israelites  are  very  particular  in  selecting 
the  citron  and  the  palm-branch.  The  former  must 
have  no  blemish ;  its  shape  and  color  must  be  per- 
fect, and  no  expense  is  spared  to  obtain  the  finest 

64 


The  Feast  of  Tabernacles 


and  most  beautiful  fruit  for  the  occasion.  In  the 
selecting  of  the  Lulab  also  care  is  taken  that  it 
should  be  perfect,  its  leaves  attached  to  each  other 
and  entirely  green.  These  fruits  are  imported  from 
warm  cHmates,  preferably  from  Palestine,  and  their 
prices  are  sometimes  quite  high.  Frequently  two 
or  three  families  unite  in  purchasing  these  species, 
although  most  synagogues  provide  several  sets  for 
those  who  are  unable  to  purchase  such  species  for 
themselves. 

A  Season  for  Rejoicing. — The  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles is  described  in  the  liturgy  as  "the  season  of 
our  rejoicing."  To  be  cheerful  and  happy  is  a  relig- 
ious duty  with  the  Jew.  His  is  not  a  religion  that 
enjoins  self-castigation  and  asceticism.  One  who 
consciously  denies  himself  the  legitimate  pleasures 
of  life  is  called  a  sinner  by  the  Rabbis.  God's  pres- 
ence, they  say,  does  not  abide  with  the  gloomy  and 
morose  spirit,  but  with  the  cheerful  and  joyous  na- 
ture. The  Nazirite,  they  further  assert,  who  con- 
sciously denied  himself  the  pleasures  of  the  world 
by  abstaining  from  wine,  had  to  bring  a  sin-offering 
to  atone  for  his  transgression.  The  spirit  of  opti- 
mism, joy  and  cheer  characterizes  all  our  festivals. 
This  idea  receives  special  emphasis  in  the  cult  of  the 
modern  Hasidim.  (See  Schechter,  "Studies  in  Ju- 
daism," pp.  31-2.) 

It  is,  however,  with  regard  to  the  Festival  of 
Tabernacles  that  rejoicing  is  repeatedly  com- 
manded. Its  celebration  in  Temple  times  was  ac- 
companied with  a  number  of  ceremonies  of  merry- 
making and  festivity.  There  was  one  ceremony  in 
particular, — the  Libation  of  Water,  which  gave  oc- 
casion to  a  great  deal  of  festivity,  so  that  it  was  said 
that  "whoever  has  not  witnessed  it  has  never  seen 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


a  real  festivity."  A  golden  pitcher  filled  with  water 
from  the  pool  of  Siloah  was,  amid  trumpet  blasts, 
poured  into  a  tube  in  the  altar,  together  with  a  liba- 
tion of  wine.  On  this  occasion  the  most  distin- 
guished Israelites  took  part  in  a  torch-dance  in  the 
Temple  precincts,  reciting  psalms  and  hymns,  while 
the  Levites  were  singing  and  playing  various  musi- 
cal instruments.  The  celebration  was  continued 
throughout  the  whole  night  of  the  second  day  oi 
the  festival.  In  a  modified  form,  these  festivities 
have  been  continued  even  after  the  destruction  of 
the  Temple.  The  observant  Jews  assemble  on  the 
nights  of  the  week-days  of  the  festival  and  spend 
the  evenings  in  reciting  various  hymns,  chanting 
appropriate  songs  and  partaking  of  refreshments. 
The  old  name,  Simhat  Bet  ha-Sho'ebah  ("the  rejoic- 
ing at  the  drawing  of  the  water")  also  was  retained. 
(Read  the  note  by  H.  M.  Adler  on  pp.  249-251  of 
the  volume  for  Tabernacles  in  the  new  edition  of 
'^Services  of  the  Synagogue,"  London,  1908.) 

The  manner  of  rejoicing  in  which  the  Israelites 
indulged  during  this  festival,  however,  was  quite 
different  from  the  festivities  accompanying  the  com- 
pletion of  the  harvest  and  the  vintage  among  the 
heathen  nations  of  antiquity.  "And  thou  shalt  re- 
joice before  the  Lord  thy  God."  The  joy  of  the 
Israelite  was  chastened  by  the  thought  that  it  was 
a  religious  joy,  and  that  God  was  always  with  him. 
The  debauchery  and  entire  abandon  to  sensuous 
pleasures  that  marked  the  Bacchanalian  feasts  were 
unknown  to  the  Jew.  He  also  rejoiced,  but  his  joy 
was  dignified,  chaste  and  wholesome.  His  was  a 
joy  hallowed  by  religion  and  consecrated  by  the 
presence  of  God.  His  songs  were  hymns  of  praise 
and  thanksgiving  to  the  Father  of  all.  His  pleas- 
ures were  derived   from   the  consciousness  of   the 

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TJie  Feast  of  Tabernacles 


nearness  of  God  and  His  protection  over  all  his 
affairs.  Throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  and  even  in 
more  modern  times,  the  Jew  celebrated  his  festivals 
with  joy  and  cheer,  indeed,  but  always  tempered  by 
religion.  Hence,  the  proverbial  sobriety  of  the  Jew, 
which  helped  so  much  to  preserve  and  strengthen 
his  powers  of  endurance. 

His  joy,  in  order  to  be  complete,  must  be  shared 
with  the  less  fortunate  ones  of  his  brethren.  ''And 
thou  shalt  rejoice  on  thy  feast,  thou,  and  thy  son, 
and  thy  daughter,  and  thy  man-servant,  and  thy 
maid-servant,  and  the  Levite,  and  the  stranger,  and 
the  fatherless,  and  the  widow,  that  are  within  thy 
gate"  (Deuteronomy  16:14).  His  must  not  be  a 
selfish  joy.  He  must  remember  the  needs  of  the 
poor  and  the  destitute,  and  see  to  it  that  their  wants 
be  supplied,  so  that  they  also  might  rejoice.  (See 
Chapter  IV.) 

Hosha'na  Rabba. — The  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  be- 
ginning on  the  fifteenth  day  of  Tishri,  is  celebrated 
for  seven  days,  the  first  two  days  (or  one  day)  only 
being  observed  as  holidays.  The  remaining  five  (or 
six)  days  are  observed  as  Hoi  ha-Mo'ed  (the  week 
days  of  the  Feast).  During  all  the  seven  days  the 
Hallel  (Psalms  113-118)  is  recited  and  a  special 
prayer,  having  the  refrain  of  Hosha'na  ("Oh, 
save!")  is  added  at  the  end  of  the  service.  In 
Temple  times,  a  procession  was  made  around  the 
altar  with  the  ''four  species"  while  this  prayer  was 
chanted,  and  on  the  seventh  day,  seven  such  proces- 
sions were  made  and  additional  hymns,  each  having 
the  same  refrain,  were  chanted,  and  the  Shofar  was 
blown.  Hence  was  given  to  the  seventh  day  the 
name  of  Hosha'na  Rabba  (the  great  Hosha'na). 
Besides  this  ceremony,  on  the  seventh  day  the  altar 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

was  decorated  with  willow  branches,  and  besides 
the  willow  branches  tied  with  the  Lulab,  each  one 
held  also  a  willow  twig  in  his  hands  during  the  pro- 
cession. The  ceremony  has  been  maintained  since, 
even  after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  and  the 
circuits  are  made  around  the  Bemah  (the  pulpit  in 
the  middle  of  the  synagogue)  and  the  extra  twig  of 
v/illow  branches  is  taken  and  struck  at  the  end  of 
the  service  until  its  leaves  fall  off.  This  ceremony 
has  been  explained  to  express  the  hope  of  resurrec- 
tion and  of  the  Messianic  age.  The  leafless  trees  in 
the  autumn,  symbolized  by  the  leafless  twigs,  will 
resume  new  life  and  produce  fresh  leaves  and  flow- 
ers and  fruit,  after  being  watered  by  the  rain  and 
the  dew  which  God  will  send  to  refresh  nature.  The 
lifeless  body,  as  well  as  Israel,  apparently  without 
life  and  vigor,  will  be  given  new  life  and  new 
strength  in  God's  own  time  and  by  God's  will. 
(Compare  the  figure  in  Isaiah  6:13.)  Other  mys- 
tical meanings  have  later  been  attached  to  this  cere- 
mony. 

The  night  of  Hosha'na  Rabba  is  spent  by  the 
pious  in  reading  the  whole  book  of  Deuteronomy, 
the  book  of  Psalms  and  a  number  of  selections  from 
Rabbinic  literature.  Refreshments  are  served  dur- 
ing the  time  of  the  religious  exercises,  to  maintain 
the  joyous  nature  of  the  festival.  The  service  in  the 
morning  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  service  on 
the  Holy  Days  and  the  day  has  come  to  be  regarded 
as  the  conclusion  of  the  period  of  judgment.  This 
idea  is  of  much  later  origin,  giving,  as  it  were,  an- 
other opportunity  for  the  sinner  to  repent  and  make 
amends.  (Read  Abrahams'  "Festival  Studies,'* 
Chapters  III,  XVI  and  XVII;  Rosenau,  "Jewish 
Ceremonial  Institutions  and  Customs,"  pp.  99-100.) 

68 


The  Feast  of  Tabernacles 


Shemini  'Azeret. — The  last  two  days  of  the  festi- 
val are  regarded  as  a  separate  feast  and  have  a  spe- 
cial name — Shemini 'Azeret  (the  eighth  day  of  Sol- 
emn Assembly).  The  ninth  day  is,  in  addition,  also 
known  as  Simhat  Torah  (the  Rejoicing  of  the  Law). 
No  special  ceremony  marks  the  observance  of  the 
eighth  day.  It  is  customary  to  continue  taking  the 
meals  in  the  Sukkah  on  this  day,  but  the  *'four  spe- 
cies" are  not  taken  then.  The  morning  service  is 
marked  by  the  additional  prayer  for  rain,  inserted 
in  the  Musaf  (additional)  service.  In  some  commu- 
nities the  book  of  Ecclesiastes  is  read  on  this  day, 
perhaps  to  sober  somewhat  the  joyousness  of  the 
occasion  by  the  pessimistic  note  of  the  book.  (An- 
other opinion  connects  this  custom  with  the  rab- 
binic interpretation  of  verse  2  in  chapter  11,  "Give 
a  portion  to  seven  and  also  to  eight,"  as  referring 
to  this  festival.) 

The  festive  spirit  of  the  season  reaches  its  highest 
climax  on  the  last  day  of  the  festival.  On  this  day, 
Simhat  Torah,  the  annual  reading  of  the  Pentateuch 
is  completed  and  begun  again,  and  the  event  is 
accompanied  with  much  rejoicing.  During  the 
evening  service  of  the  ninth  day  all  the  scrolls  are 
taken  out  of  the  ark  and  carried  in  procession 
around  the  synagogue,  while  appropriate  hymns  and 
songs  are  chanted  by  the  Hazzan  (precentor),  choir 
and  congregation.  Children  are  encouraged  to  take 
part  in  the  procession,  carrying  flags  bearing  appro- 
priate inscriptions,  with  burning  tapers.  They  are 
also  given  the  honor  of  being  called  up  to  the  read- 
ing of  the  Law,  even  if  they  are  not  yet  of  the  Bar 
Mizwah  age.  Nuts  and  raisins  are  thrown  down 
to  them  from  the  women's  gallery  and  they  are  also 
given  other  refreshments  in  the  synagogue.  These 
ceremonies  are  repeated  during  the  morning  service 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


of  Simhat  Torah.  It  is  regarded  a  special  privilege 
to  be  called  up  to  the  reading  of  the  last  portion  of 
the  Pentateuch  (Hatan  Torah,  i.e.,  Bridegroom  of 
the  Law)  and  of  the  first  portion  of  the  Pentateuch 
(Hatan  Bereshit,  i.e.,  Bridegroom  of  the  Begin- 
ning). The  persons  so  honored  would  invite  the 
members  of  the  congregation  to  their  homes,  where 
a  feast  was  prepared  for  them.  The  day  was  then 
spent  in  merry-making  and  joyous  festivity,  a  fitting 
conclusion  to  the  ''season  of  our  rejoicing."  (See 
Rosenau,  "Jewish  Ceremonial  Institutions  and  Cus- 
toms," pp.  100-102.) 

RESUME 

The  three  pilgrim  feasts,  originally  connected 
with  the  agricultural  life  of  ancient  Israel,  have  later 
become  associated  with  the  various  stages  in  the 
development  of  the  Jewish  nation: — The  birth  of 
the  nation  as  a  political  entity  (Passover),  the  char- 
acter given  to  that  nation  as  a  religious  people 
(Shabuot),  and  the  development  of  that  double 
nature  during  the  long  period  of  wandering  (Suk- 
kot).  The  Jewish  consciousness  is  thus  aroused  at 
the  periodic  recurrence  of  these  feasts,  by  the  cere- 
monies they  enjoin  and  the  memories  they  bring  up. 

The  Sukkah,  recalling  as  it  does  God's  protection 
over  Israel  in  the  most  trying  period  of  its  existence, 
also  has  its  religious  lesson  for  the  present  age. 
Trust  in  God  and  reliance  on  His  merciful  provi- 
dence drive  away  all  gloom  and  sorrow  and  give 
to  life  its  most  sustaining  tonic — hope.  Without  it, 
life  is  not  worth  living.  In  their  symbolic  way,  the 
Rabbis  interpreted  the  phrase,  "And  they  believed 
in  the  Lord  and  in  His  servant  Moses"  (Exodus  14: 
31),  which  is  immediately  followed  by  the  words, 

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TJic  Feast  of  Tabernacles 


"Then  sang  Moses  and  the  children  of  Israel,"  that 
because  they  believed  in  God  they  were  able  to 
chant  songs.  It  is  faith  that  gives  one  hope  and 
cheer,  that  brightens  the  saddest  moments  in  life 
and  makes  life  worth  while  even  in  most  trying  cir- 
cumstances. 

It  is  because  of  this  abiding  faith  in  the  goodness 
and  mercy  of  God  that  the  Jew  regarded  happiness 
a  duty  and  unnecessary  self-denial  a  sin.  "And  thou 
shalt  rejoice  before  the  Lord  thy  God"  is  the  key- 
note of  the  Festival  of  Tabernacles.  In  his  own  way 
the  Jew  endeavored  always  to  get  the  best  out  of 
life.  In  spite  of  his  many  trials  and  troubles,  the 
Jew  was  able  to  maintain  his  cheerful  spirit  and 
hopeful  mood.  If  everything  about  him  was  dark 
and  gloomy,  if  he  could  find  no  comfort  in  the  con- 
ditions under  which  he  lived,  he  turned  his  gaze  to 
the  remote  future  and  indulged  in  the  glorious 
dreams  of  a  Messianic  Era,  as  pictured  for  him  by 
Prophet  and  seer,  Rabbi  and  poet.  The  joys  and 
festivities  indulged  in  on  this  festival  are  emblem- 
atic of  the  optimistic  view  of  life  the  Jew  always 
held. 

Since  life  is  sacred,  since  there  is  nothing  profane 
in  human  actions  and  conduct,  joy  also  must  be  hal- 
lowed by  the  spirit  of  religion.  The  harvest  festi- 
vals of  other  peoples  of  antiquity  were  accompanied 
with  a  great  deal  of  debauchery  and  licentiousness. 
Joy  to  them  meant  the  abandon  to  the  lower  inclina- 
tions of  man.  The  Jew  derived  the  greatest  amount 
of  pleasure  from  an  abandon  to  the  highest  yearn- 
ing of  the  human  soul.  He  also  indulged  in  the 
pleasures  of  life,  but  he  hallowed  these  and  made 
them  savor  of  the  divine. 

To  express  his  joy  and  gratitude  he  used  in  his 
ceremonies    the    "four    species"    of    vegetation,    by 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

which  he  symbolized  his  recognition  of  God's 
favors  during  the  period  of  the  harvest.  By  so  do- 
ing the  Jew  declared  again  the  sovereignty  of  God 
over  nature,  and  the  dependence  of  man  upon  God. 

Hosha'na  Rabba  with  its  quaint  ceremonies,  as 
observed  in  later  times,  is  also  pregnant  with  valu- 
able lessons  for  all  ages.  It  is  never  too  late  to 
repent.  God  is  ready  to  receive  the  sinner  and  grant 
him  forgiveness,  whenever  he  comes  with  a  contrite 
heart  and  is  ready  to  make  amends  for  sins  com- 
mitted. 

The  love  of  the  Jew  for  his  Torah,  his  affection 
for  the  law  of  God  entrusted  to  him  and  his  devotion 
to  its  study  are  displayed  especially  on  Simhat 
Torah.  Then  the  most  dignified  Rabbis  indulged 
in  merry-making  and  rejoicing,  giving  public  ac- 
knowledgment of  their  gratitude  for  having  been 
made  the  custodians  of  the  holy  Law.  To  indicate 
their  devotion  to  the  study  of  this  Law,  they  began 
its  reading  anew  immediately  upon  the  completion 
of  the  Pentateuch,  so  that  there  should  be  no  inter- 
ruption in  the  study  of  the  Torah. 

QUESTIONS 

L  Describe  the  double  significance  of  the  Festi- 
val, and  explain  the  names  given  to  it  in  the  Bible. 

2.  What  does  the  Sukkah  symbolize?  What  is 
its  historical  significance?  What  lesson  does  it 
teach  to  us  of  the  present? 

3.  Explain  the  ceremony  of  the  "four  species" 
and  its  observance  in  olden  times  and  in  modern 
days. 

4.  What  is  the  attitude  of  Judaism  toward  joy 

72 


The  Feast  of  Tabernacles 


and  sorrow?     How  is  this  attitude  exemplified  by 
this  Festival? 

5.  Draw  a  distinction  between  the  joyousness  of 
Jewish  holidays  and  that  of  the  festivals  of  other 
nations  of  antiquity. 

6.  What  is  the  significance  of  Hosha'na  Rabba? 
Give  some  details  of  its  observance. 

7.  Describe  the  meaning  of  the  closing  days  of 
the  holiday,  with  special  reference  to  the  last  day. 

8.  In  what  manner  did  children  participate  in  the 
various  ceremonies  connected  with  this  feast?  What 
pedagogic  value  have  they? 


73 


VI.     NEW  YEAR  (ROSH  HA-SHANAH) 

The  Solemn  Days  (Yomim  Noraim). — The  first 
ten  days  of  the  month  of  Tishri  are  designated  in 
the  liturgy  as  the  Days  of  Repentance  ('Aseret 
Yeme  Teshubah).  This  period  the  Jew  is  enjoined 
to  devote  to  solemn  contemplation  of  his  moral  and 
religious  condition,  to  pray  for  forgiveness  for  sins 
committed  and  to  determine  to  improve  his  ways 
and  sin  no  more.  They  are  also  called  Solemn 
Days  (Yomin  Noraim),  because  of  the  solemn 
thoughts  they  suggest  regarding  man's  weaknesses 
and  failings  and  God's  forgiveness  and  mercy.  The 
first  two  days  (Rosh  ha-Shanah),  and  the  tenth  day 
(Yom  Kippur),  are  holy  days,  when,  as  on  other 
festivals,  no  servile  work  is  permitted. 

This  period  of  repentance  is  preceded  by  an  en- 
tire month  of  preparation.  During  the  month  af 
Elul,  the  Shofar  is  blown  in  the  synagogue  at  every 
morning  service  of  the  week  days  and  the  pious  re- 
cite additional  prayers  and  supplications  (Selihot), 
in  anticipation  of  the  day  of  judgment.  There  is  an 
old  tradition  that  Moses  went  up  on  Mt.  Sinai  for 
the  third  time  on  the  first  day  of  Elul  and  came  down 
again  on  the  tenth  day  of  Tishri,  with  the  assurance 
of  God's  pardon  for  the  sin  of  the  Golden  Calf.  In 
the  hope  that  we  also  might  obtain  the  same  assur- 
ance on  the  Day  of  Atonement  the  pious  Jews  begin 
their  preparations  for  the  penitential  season  from 
the  first  of  Elul.  In  many  communities,  the  peni- 
tential prayers  (Selihot)  are  recited  only  during  the 
week  preceding  New  Year,  every  day,  early  at  dawn. 

74 


Nezv   Year 


The  Holy  Days. — The  two  holy  days,  New  Year 
and  the  Day  of  Atonement,  have  neither  a  historical 
nor  an  agricultural  origin.  They  are  purely  re- 
ligious in  nature  and  appeal  to  the  conscience  of  the 
individual  Jew.  While  they  do  not  partake  of  the 
joyousness  that  characterizes  the  three  Pilgrim 
Feasts,  they  are,  nevertheless,  not  meant  to  be  ob- 
served as  days  of  sadness  and  mourning.  They,  in- 
deed, remind  man  of  his  frailty  and  weakness,  but 
they  also  bring  with  them  the  grand  and  comforting* 
message  of  the  forgiveness  of  God.  The  great  God, 
the  Judge  of  the  whole  world,  who  sits  in  judgment 
over  man's  actions  and  thoughts,  is  also  a  kind  and 
merciful  Father,  ready  to  forgive,  to  extend  atone- 
ment to  those  who  return  to  Him  in  truth.  All  man- 
ner of  mourning  is  as  strictly  forbidden  on  these 
days  as  on  the  other  festivals ;  the  greeting  that  one 
extends  to  his  neighbor  is  also  the  same  (Yom  Tob 
— a  happy  day)  ;  and  in  every  other  respect  they  are 
observed  as  holidays,  festive  though  solemn,  bring- 
ing up  serious  reflections,  but  also  great  and  com- 
forting hopes.  Their  appeal  to  the  Jewish  con- 
sciousness has  ever  been  most  powerful,  so  that  even 
the  least  observant  Israelite  endeavors  to  keep  these 
days  holy,  abstaining  from  his  daily  occupations 
and  participating  in  the  communal  worship. 

New  Year  (Rosh  Ha-Shanah). — Although  Nisan 
was  the  first  month  of  the  Jewish  year  (Exodus 
12:2),  the  first  day  of  the  seventh  month  (Tishri) 
was,  in  many  respects,  regarded  as  the  New  Year. 
According  to  tradition,  the  creation  of  the  world 
took  place  on  the  first  of  Tishri.  Hence,  Jewish 
chronology  begins  the  year  with  this  day.  In  the 
Bible,  however,  the  festival  is  not  designated  as  New 
Year,  although  the  name  is  mentioned  in  the  earliest 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

Rabbinical  writings  as  a  term  in  common  use.  The 
Bible  speaks  of  the  festival  as  *'the  day  of  blowing 
the  horn"  (Numbers  29:1),  or  as  **the  memorial  of 
the  blowing  of  the  trumpet"  (Leviticus  23:24).  In 
the  Hturgy,  the  day  is  known  simply  as  the  day  of 
''memorial"  or  as  ''the  day  of  judgment."  (Read  the 
article  ''New  Year"  in  the  Jewish  Encyclopedia.) 

The  Shofar.— The  blowing  of  the  Shofar  during 
the  morning  services  in  the  synagogue  on  the  two 
days  of  Rosh  ha-Shanah  constitutes  the  most  prom- 
inent feature  in  the  observance  of  the  holiday.  The 
Shofar  is  usually  made  of  the  horn  of  a  ram,  al- 
though the  horn  of  any  other  clean  animal,  except 
that  of  a  cow  or  an  ox  (because  of  the  Golden  Calf 
incident),  may  also  be  used  for  that  purpose.  The 
horn  is  flattened  after  being  softened  in  boiling 
water  and  is  provided  with  a  mouth-piece.  It  may 
not  be  painted  in  colors  or  decorated  in  any  way, 
although  it  is  permitted  to  have  artistic  designs 
carved  on  it. 

Just  before  the  scrolls  are  put  back  in  the  ark,  the 
person  selected  for  the  task  of  blowing  the  Shofar 
(ba'al  toke'a),  dressed  in  white  shroud  and  Talit,  as- 
cends the  pulpit  (bemah),  accompanied  by  the  Rabbi 
or  another  distinguished  member  of  the  congrega- 
tion, who  is  designated  as  the  "makri"  (prompter), 
because  he  calls  out  the  names  of  the  sounds  to  the 
"ba'al  toke'a."  The  congregation  then  joins  in  re- 
citing, for  seven  times,  Psalm  47,  in  which  refer- 
ences are  made  to  the  use  of  the  Shofar  in  connec- 
tion with  the  declaration  of  God's  sovereignty  over 
the  world.  The  ba'al  toke'a  then  pronounces  the 
following  blessings: 

Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord,  our  God,  King  of  the 
Universe,  Who  has  sanctified  us  with  His  command- 

76 


Nezv   Year 


ments,  and  commanded  us  to  hear  the  sound  of  the 
Shofar. 

Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord,  our  God,  King  of  the 
Universe,  Who  has  kept  us  alive,  preserved  us  and 
enabled  us  to  reach  this  season. 

The  sounds  produced  by  the  Shofar  are :  Teki'ah, 
the  plain  deep  sound,  ending  abruptly;  Shebarim,  the 
broken  sound ;  Teru'ah,  a  wavering  sound,  consist- 
ing of  a  number  of  broken  notes.  These  sounds  are 
arranged  in  various  combinations,  as  follows: 

Teki'ah,  Shebarim,  Teru'ah,  Teki'ah 

Teki'ah,  Shebarim,  Teki'ah 

Teki'ah,  Teru'ah,  Teki'ah 
and  repeated  three  times,  so  that  thirty  sounds  in 
all  are  sounded  at  this  part  of  the  service.  The  last 
Teki'ah  is  considerably  prolonged,  and  is  therefore 
called  "Teki'ah  Gedolah"  (the  great  Teki'ah).  The 
same  thirty  sounds  are  repeated  later  in  the  Musaf 
(additional)  service.  In  some  congregations,  forty 
more  sounds  are  produced  at  the  end  of  the  service, 
making  in  all  one  hundred  sounds.  The  same  order 
is  followed  also  on  the  second  day.  The  number  of 
times  the  Shofar  is  sounded  has  been  modified  in 
some  congregations  in  which  the  Rabbinical  inter- 
pretations are  not  rigidly  followed. 

If  the  first  day  falls  on  a  Sabbath,  the  Shofar  is 
not  sounded,  the  apprehension  being  that  the  ba'al 
toke'a  will  be  tempted  to  carry  the  Shofar  in  the 
street,  an  act  forbidden  on  the  Sabbath  Day.  In 
Temple  times,  when  strict  discipline  prevailed,  the 
Shofar  was  blown  also  on  the  Sabbath. 

The  Meaning  and  the  Message  of  the  Shofar. — In 

Biblical  times,  important  and  solemn  occasions 
were  proclaimed  by  means  of  blowing  the  Shofar. 
The  advent  of  the  Sabbath,  the  festivals  and  the 

77 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

New  Moons  (Numbers  10:10),  and  of  the  Jubilee 
Year  (Leviticus  25:9)  was  heralded  by  the  blowing 
of  the  trumpet.  The  great  Revelation  at  Mt.  Sinai 
is  described  as  having  been  accompanied  with  the 
blast  of  the  Shofar  (Exodus  19:16,  19),  which 
caused  the  frightened  multitudes  to  withdraw  in 
terror  from  the  smoking  mountain  (Exodus  20:18). 
The  prophets  also  speak  of  the  blowing  of  the 
Shofar  as  a  means  of  arousing  the  indifferent  con- 
science and  calling  for  humiliation  and  solemn  con- 
templation (see  Jeremiah  4:5,  19;  6:1,  17;  Ezekiel 
33:1-6;  Joel  2:1,  15;  Amos  3:6  and  others). 

The  sounding  of  the  Shofar  on  New  Year's  day 
is  also  intended  to  mark  the  solemnity  of  the  oc- 
casion and  to  call  for  a  searching  examination  of  our 
deeds  and  conduct  during  the  past  year.  The  old 
year  is  gone,  a  new  year  is  ushered  in.  Time  ad- 
vances, life  is  rapidly  moving  on.  What  use  have 
we  made  of  our  time?  How  did  we  spend  the  life 
given  to  us?  The  notes  produced  by  the  Shofar 
make  us  interrupt  our  ordinary  occupations  and  con- 
sider in  how  far  we  have  failed  to  realize  the  best 
and  noblest  that  is  within  us  during  the  past  year. 
Thus,  this  indeed  becomes  a  Day  of  Memorial,  be- 
cause the  Shofar  reminds  us  of  the  real  purpose  of 
life,  of  its  sacredness  and  sublimity  and  of  our  fail- 
ure to  realize  that  purpose,  and  also  inspires  us  to 
resolve  to  make  amends  and  improve  our  ways  in 
the  future. 

Maimonides,  the  great  Jewish  philosopher,  inter- 
preted the  warning  sound  of  the  Shofar  in  the  fol- 
lowing stirring  words:  ''Awake,  ye  sleepers,  and 
ponder  your  deeds ;  remember  your  Creator,  and  go 
back  to  Him  in  penitence.  Be  not  of  those  that  miss 
reality  in  their  hunt  after  shadows,  and  waste  their 
years  in   seeking  after  vain   things   which   cannot 

78 


New   Year 


profit  or  deliver.  Look  well  to  your  souls  and  con- 
sider your  acts ;  forsake  each  of  you  his  evil  ways 
and  thoughts,  and  return  to  God,  so  that  He  may 
have  mercy  upon  you."  (See  Joseph,  ^'Judaism  as 
Creed  and  Life,"  pp.  190-192;  Abrahams,  ''Festival 
Studies,"  ch.  XX.) 

There  is  also  another  idea  involved  in  the  name 
applied  to  this  day  as  the  *'Day  of  Memorial."  Not 
only  should  w^e  bethink  ourselves  of  our  frailties  and 
shortcomings,  but  we  also  pray  that  the  sounds  of 
the  Shofar  might  be  carried  to  God,  Who  would  take 
account  of  our  weakness  and  of  our  desire  to  return 
to  Him,  and  judge  us  with  mercy.  Severe  as  we 
should  be  when  w^e  judge  ourselves,  we  hope  that 
God,  the  Great  Judge,  will  be  lenient^  when  He 
judges  us.  With  this  idea  in  mind,  we  invoke  His 
goodness  by  recalling  the  loyalty  and  self-sacrifice 
of  our  ancestors  (Zekut  Abot),  so  that  even  if  we 
ourselves  are  unworthy  of  gracious  consideration, 
God  would  have  pity  on  us  for  the  sake  of  the  Patri- 
archs, for  the  sake  of  the  many  sacrifices  made  by 
our  ancestors  in  behalf  of  His  Holy  Name.  The 
sacrifice  of  Isaac,  the  most  striking  example  of  loy- 
alty and  implicit  faith,  is  frequently  referred  to  in 
the  service  of  the  day,  not  merely  because  it  was 
supposed  to  have  occurred  on  Rosh  ha-Shanah,  but 
especially  because  we  hope  to  benefit  by  recalling 
this  noble  act  on  the  part  of  our  progenitor,  Abra- 
ham. The  reason  why  the  Shofar  is  usually  made 
out  of  the  ram's  horn  is  to  emphasize  this  incident 
more  strikingly,  since  it  was  the  ram  that  was 
offered  by  Abraham  instead  of  his  son.  The  ready 
response  of  the  Israelites  at  Mt.  Sinai,  when  the  Ten 
Commandments  were  offered  to  them,  "we  shall  do, 
and  we  shall  obey,"  displaying  as  it  did  the  com- 
plete faith  of  the  people  in  God,  is  also  often  men- 

79 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


tioned  in  our  prayers  as  a  further  reason  why  we 
might  expect  leniency  in  judgment.  (See  Rosenau, 
"Jewish  Ceremonial  Institutions  and  Customs,"  pp. 
92-96;  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  articles  "Shofar," 
"New  Year"). 

The  Services  in  the  Synagogue. — The  liturgy  for 
the  New  Year,  while  emphasizing  these  solemn 
thoughts,  is  not  conducive  to  sadness  and  mourn- 
ing. The  certainty  of  God's  mercy  and  kindness, 
the  confidence  in  God's  forgiveness  of  sins  com- 
mitted, carry  with  them  a  comforting  hope,  to 
which  the  prayers  for  the  day  give  constant  and 
noble  expression.  Not  so  much  the  smallness  and 
weakness  of  man,  as  the  greatness  and  power  of 
God,  is  the  theme  of  most  of  the  prayers.  There  is 
a  grand  universalism,  a  glorious  breadth  of  view 
permeating  the  most  important  portions  of  the 
Rosh  ha-Shanah  service,  which  make  them  the  most 
sublime  prayers  in  our  liturgy.  God,  the  King  of 
the  Universe,  is  first  invoked  to  make  all  men  realize 
His  glory  and  His  might,  so  that  all  may  do  His 
will,  and  all  wickedness  and  sin  may  disappear  from 
the  earth.  Even  the  prayers  for  the  restoration  of 
Palestine  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  holy  city  have 
in  view  not  only  Israel,  but  the  whole  human  race. 
The  glory  of  the  Lord  emanating  from  Zion  will 
shed  its  lustre  on  the  whole  world,  so  that  all  crea- 
tures might  behold  the  grandeur  of  the  Creator  and 
Ruler  of  the  Universe.  The  righteous  shall  rejoice, 
when  the  dominion  of  arrogance  shall  pass  away 
from  the  earth  and  the  dominion  of  God  be  estab- 
lished instead. 

Feeble  though  we  are,  and  insignificant  though 
our  lives  may  seem,  we  are  expected  and  enjoined 
so  to  order  our  lives  as  to  be  able  to  approach  the 

80 


New   Year 


majestic  glory  of  the  divine.  The  religious  soul, 
conscious  of  its  unworthiness,  still  yearns  for  com- 
munion with  the  soul  of  the  universe,  with  the  great 
God.  And  this  great  Judge  of  our  deeds  and 
thoughts,  this  Mighty  Ruler  of  the  Universe,  wants 
to  sanctify  our  lives,  and  He  provides  us  with  the 
means  by  which  we  may  come  nearer  to  Him.  The 
link  that  binds  us  with  God  is  the  Torah.  God  re- 
vealed Himself  to  our  ancestors  and  gave  them  the 
Torah,  the  guide  for  conduct,  by  which  human  life 
might  become  holy  and  partake  of  the  divine.  These 
three  ideas — the  greatness  and  majesty  of  God,  the 
sinfulness  and  weakness  of  man,  and  the  means  by 
w^hich  man  can  rise  to  the  exalted  destiny  set  before 
him,  the  adherence  to  the  Torah — find  most  forcible 
expression  in  the  Musaf  (additional)  service  for  the 
day.  The  three  main  elements  of  that  service  are 
designated  as  Malchuyot  (in  which  the  sovereignty 
of  God  over  the  Universe  is  declared),  Zichronot  (in 
which  God's  justice  is  brought  out),  and  Shofarot 
(in  which  the  Revelation  at  Mt.  Sinai  is  recalled), 
and  each  of  these  ideas  is  supported  by  numerous 
quotations  from  the  Bible  and  by  references  to  vari- 
ous events  in  the  early  history  of  Israel.  God  the 
King;  God  the  Judge;  God  the  Lawgiver— these 
are  really  the  three  main  principles  of  the  Jewish 
religion  (compare  Isaiah  33:22). 

The  selection  from  Genesis  20  and  21,  where  the 
birth  of  Isaac  and  his  contemplated  sacrifice  are 
narrated,  form  the  sections  of  the  Torah  for  the 
two  days  respectively.  The  Haftarah  for  the  first 
day  is  taken  from  Samuel  1 :1  to  2  :10,  because  of  the 
tradition  that  Samuel  was  born  on  Rosh  ha-Shanah. 
This  selection  also  includes  the  beautiful  prayer  of 
Hannah.    On  the  second  day,  the  Haftarah  is  taken 

81 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


from  Jeremiah  31:1-20,  where  the  prophet  empha- 
sizes the  great  hope  for  Israel's  restoration  and  for 
the  Messianic  period. 

The  usual  greeting  extended  to  one  another  on  the 
festivals  (Yom  Tob — a  happy  day)  is  accompanied 
on  Rosh  ha-Shanah  with  the  blessing  **L'Shanah 
Tobah  Tikateb — may  you  be  inscribed  for  a  happy 
year."  Several  additional  prayers  for  life  are  inter- 
spersed in  the  regular  service  recited  during  the  ten 
days  of  penitence  (see  Abrahams,  "Festival  Stud- 
ies," ch.  IV).  During  the  evening  meal  of  Rosh 
ha-Shanah  it  is  customary  to  partake  of  some  sweet 
fruit  dipped  in  honey,  and  to  pronounce  the  prayer, 
''May  it  be  the  will  of  God  that  we  have  a  pleasant 
year."  In  more  modern  times  this  festival  has  been 
made  the  occasion  of  happy  family  reunions  and  of 
strengthening  the  ties  of  friendship  and  brother- 
hood. Greetings  of  good  wishes  are  sent  to  relatives 
and  friends  from  far  and  near  and  the  family  rela- 
tionship and  family  affections  are  aroused  and  fos- 
tered by  the  exchange  of  gifts  among  relatives  ac- 
companied with  blessings  for  a  happy  New  Year. 
This  custom,  although  of  recent  origin,  is  to  be 
highly  commended,  because  of  the  opportunity  it 
affords  to  exercise  those  beautiful  Jewish  virtues 
clustering  about  the  home  and  the  family. 

Based  on  the  sentiment  expressed  in  Micah  7:19, 
"He  will  again  have  compassion  upon  us ;  He  will 
subdue  our  iniquities ;  and  Thou  will  cast  (we- 
Tashlik)  all  their  sins  into  the  depths  of  the  sea," 
the  custom  arose  of  assembling  in  the  afternoon  of 
the  first  day  of  the  New  Year  (or  of  the  second  day, 
if  the  first  day  is  on  the  Sabbath)  along  the  banks  of 
a  running  water  and  reciting  the  verses  from  Micah 
7:18-20  and  some  appropriate  penitential  prayers. 
This  custom  is  still  followed  by  a  large  number  of 

82 


Netv   Year 


Jews  (see  Abrahams,  "Festival  Studies,"  ch.  XIII). 
The  Sabbath  between  Rosh  ha-Shanah  and  Yom 
Kippur  is  called  "Sabbath  Shubah"  (The  Sabbath  of 
Repentance),  because  the  Haftarah  for  the  day  is 
taken  from  Hosea  14:2-10,  beginning  with  the  word 
"Shubah"  ("Return"). 


RESUME 

The  penitential  season  brings  a  special  message 
to  the  Jew  of  all  times.  It  is  well  that  a  special  sea- 
son be  set  aside,  during  which  our  attention  should 
be  turned  to  our  moral  and  religious  progress,  w^hen 
we  should,  so  to  say,  make  an  inventory  of  the  status 
of  our  spiritual  lives.  "Return,  O  Israel,  to  the  Lord 
thy  God ;  for  thou  hast  stumbled  in  thine  iniquity" 
(Hosea  14:2)  is  the  cry  that  rings  in  our  ears  day 
after  day  from  the  first  to  the  tenth  day  of  Tishri. 
And  the  pious  Israelite  heeds  the  cry  and  even  long 
before  that  time  begins  to  make  an  accounting  with 
his  soul,  realizing  that  "there  is  not  a  righteous  man 
upon  earth,  that  doeth  good  and  sinneth  not"  (Ec- 
clesiastes  7:20). 

While  sin  is  thus  regarded  as  incidental  to  human 
nature,  and  while  we  are  all  liable  to  stumble  and 
yield  to  temptation,  our  religion  extends  to  us  the 
great  hope  of  God's  forgiveness,  of  His  readiness  to 
accept  the  repentant  sinner,  wdio  returns  to  Him  in 
truth.  This  is  the  comforting  message  of  the  tw^o 
great  holy  days  of  the  Jewish  year.  The  repentant 
sinner  will  be  received  with  favor  by  the  Great 
Judge  of  the  Universe.  Aye,  the  position  assigned 
to  the  penitent  sinner  in  the  affections  of  the  All- 
Merciful  is  even  higher  than  that  occupied  by  the 
righteous,  according  to  our  Rabbis.    He  has  to  put 

83 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

forth  a  greater  effort  to  break  with  sinful  habits  and 
to  continue  along  the  path  of  righteous  conduct, 
hence  he  is  deserving  of  greater  reward. 

The  sound  of  the  Shofar  recalls  to  us  the  great- 
ness of  God  as  well  as  the  smallness  of  our  lives. 
It  bids  us  cease  following  the  transient  and  ephem- 
eral and  to  turn  our  thoughts  to  the  lasting  and 
eternal  realities  of  life.  Our  higher  responsibilities 
as  the  children  of  God,  made  in  His  own  image,  are 
made  real  to  us  and  our  hearts  are  broken  in  contri- 
tion over  our  failure  to  fulfill  the  great  duties  im- 
posed upon  us  by  the  divine  that  is  within  us.  We 
become  frightened,  terror-stricken,  when  we  are 
made  to  contemplate  how  we  have  really  spent  the 
life  which  was  entrusted  to  us  for  exalted  and  sacred 
ends,  and  we  turn  to  God,  our  Father,  for  mercy  and 
forgiveness.  If  we  are  unworthy  of  pardon,  let  our 
past  record  and  the  merit  of  our  fathers,  who  have 
displayed  such  loyal  faith  and  such  noble  self-sacri- 
fice, plead  in  our  behalf  before  the  throne  of  Mercy. 

Strong  emphasis  is  given  to  these  ideas  in  the 
beautiful  and  sublime  prayers  of  the  festival.  From 
the  humiHating  thought  of  our  insignificance  and 
unworthiness,  we  turn  to  the  consoling  idea  of  God's 
greatness  and  majesty.  If  not  for  our  sake,  God  will 
have  mercy  on  us  for  the  sake  of  His  Holy  Name. 
Not  to  us  alone,  but  to  the  whole  world,  to  all  his 
creatures,  God  will  manifest  His  glory  and  majesty. 
He  will  establish  His  kingdom  upon  earth,  so  that 
there  will  be  no  place  for  the  rule  of  arrogance  and 
sin. 

"Israel,  the  Holy  One,  blessed  be  He,  and  the 
Torah  are  one,"  is  a  favorite  saying  of  the  Rabbis. 
Weak  and  frail  though  we  are,  a  means  was  pro- 
vided to  us  by  which  we  can  rise  to  the  heights  of 
perfection  and  holiness.    The  great  and  good  God 

84 


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New   Year 


has  revealed  himself  to  our  ancestors  and  told  them 
what  to  do  and  how  to  regulate  their  lives  so  as  to 
make  them  holy.  The  Torah  is  the  link  that  binds 
Israel  with  God.  Through  the  observance  of  its 
precepts  our  lives  will  become  consecrated,  partak- 
ing of  the  divine  nature  of  God.  It  is  therefore  most 
appropriate  that  on  these  holy  days  we  determine 
again  to  make  the  Torah  our  guide  in  life,  and  its 
precepts  the  norm  of  our  actions  and  deeds. 

Serious  and  sobering  though  these  thoughts  are, 
they  are  not  saddening.  We  observe  these  days  as 
festivals,  because  of  the  assurance  that  we  have  of 
the  goodness  of  God  and  His  readiness  to  forgive.  It 
is  this  glorious  idea  that  spurs  us  on  to  improve  our 
ways  and  make  ourselves  worthy  of  God's  care  and 
benign  Providence. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  "Season  of  Repentance"? 
What  preparations  are  made  for  it? 

2.  How  do  the  Holy  Days  differ  from  the  other 
three  festivals  of  the  Jewish  calendar? 

3.  How    IS    Rosh    ha-Shanah    designated    in    the 
Bible?    How  in  the  liturgy? 

4.  Describe  the  appearance  of  the  Shofar  and  its 
use. 

5.  What  significance  was  attached  to  the  sound 
of  the  Shofar  in  the  Bible?    Illustrate  by  quotations. 

6.  What  thoughts  does  the  sound  of  the  Shofar 
call  forth  on  Rosh  ha-Shanah? 

85 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

7.  Describe  the  meaning  of  *'Zekut  Abot"  and  its 
association  with  the  idea  of  the  Day  of  Judgment. 

8.  Explain,  by  quoting  examples,  the  universal- 
ism  of  the  Rosh  ha-Shanah  prayers. 

9.  Describe  the  three  elements  of  the  Musaf 
service  and  their  significance. 

10.  Explain  how  it  is  that  with  all  these  seri  lus 
reflections,  Rosh  ha-Shanah  is  still  celebrated  as  a 
festival.  What  comforting  thought  does  it  bring? 
What  is  meant  by  "Tashlik"? 


86 


VII.    THE  DAY  OF  ATONEMENT 
(YOM  HA-KIPPURIM) 

The  Purpose  of  the  Day. — The  Penitential  Sea- 
son, beginning  on  the  first  day  of  Tishri,  reaches  its 
culminating  point  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  same 
month,  called  the  Day  of  Atonement.  This  is  to  be 
a  "Sabbath  of  rest"  and  a  fast  day,  when  we  should 
abstain  from  all  ordinary  occupations,  restrain  all 
physical  cravings  and  devote  all  our  thoughts  to  the 
higher  call  of  the  soul.  "For  on  this  day  shall  atone- 
ment be  made  for  you,  to  cleanse  you ;  from  all  your 
sins  shall  ye  be  clean  before  the  Lord"  (Leviticus 
16:30).  The  forgiveness  of  God  is  conditioned  on 
our  determination  to  cleanse  ourselves.^  This  day 
is  thus  set  aside  for  prayer  and  supplication,  for 
making  a  supreme  efifort  to  throw  off  all  sin,  to  wipe 
out  all  evil  and  to  rise  to  the  loftier  dignity  of  the 
divinity  that  is  within  us. 

"Teshubah"  (return)  is  the  appeal  which  this  day 
makes  to  all  Israelites.  It  is  the  call  to  turn  away 
from  the  pettiness  and  smallness  of  our  daily  lives, 
from  the  sinfulness  and  negligence  which  character- 
ize our  actions,  and  to  come  back  to  a  realization  of 
the  higher  destiny  assigned  to  the  human  soul,  the 
real  purpose  of  life.  The  consciousness  of  sin  and 
of  having  strayed  away  from  the  path  of  righteous- 
ness breaks  our  hearts  in  contrition  and  remorse. 
Then  we  yearn  for  a  purification  of  our  souls  which 
have  become  defiled  by  the  sinful  life,  and  for  a 
reconciliation  with  our  higher  selves  and  with  the 
Soul  of  the  Universe,  our  Father  in  Heaven.  And 
here  comes  the  glorious  promise  of  God,  that  He  will 

87 


Methods  of  TeacJiing  the  Jeivish  Religion 

forgive  us  and  cleanse  us,  that  He  is  ready  to  take 
us  back,  when  we  "return"  to  Him  in  truth.  We 
need  no  mediator  who  should  intercede  in  our  be- 
half. The  humblest  sinner  may  approach  the  divine 
throne,  pour  out  his  heart  in  prayer,  confess  his  sins 
and  resolve  to  make  amends.  To  him  God  will 
listen  and  extend  gracious  pardon. 

Nature  of  Repentance. — The  confidence  in  God's 
mercy  and  forgiveness,  which  the  day  inspires,  is 
conditioned  upon  man's  repentance.  The  final  aim 
of  repentance  should  be  ''Teshubah,"  the  return  to 
the  higher  life,  the  reformation  of  our  nature,  the 
entire  change  of  heart  and  of  attitude  towards  life 
and  its  purpose.  It  is  not  merely  the  consciousness 
of  sin,  nor  even  the  remorse  that  this  consciousness 
brings  with  it,  although  it  includes  both.  It  aims 
higher.  It  goes  to  the  very  root  of  the  evil  and  pro- 
poses a  radical  change  in  the  very  nature  of  man,  so 
as  to  make  sin  repugnant  and  all  evil  a  menace  to 
the  well-being  of  the  individual  and  of  the  com- 
munity. 

The  first  stage  in  true  repentance  is  naturally  the 
feeling  that  a  sin  has  been  committed,  an  act  that 
should  bring  shame  to  the  individual  guilty  of  it. 
We  must  feel  thoroughly  ashamed  of  our  evil-doings 
and  have  the  courage  to  acknowledge  them  before 
we  seek  repentance.  The  Confession  of  sins  thus 
forms  a  very  important  part  in  the  liturgy  of  the 
Day  of  Atonement.  The  next  step  is  to  make  rep- 
aration for  the  sin.  If  we  become  conscious  of  a  sin 
committed  against  a  fellow-man,  we  should  proceed 
to  seek  his  pardon,  and,  whenever  possible,  atone  for 
it  to  him.  In  agreement  with  this  idea,  it  is  cus- 
tomary in  some  synagogues  to  provide  refreshments 
for  the  worshippers  on  the  morning  of  the  eve  of 

88 


The  Day  of  Atonement 


the  Day  of  Atonement,  when  forgiveness  is  extend- 
ed to  one  another  for  any  possible  slight  or  harm. 
But  even  after  we  have  obtained  this  pardon  and 
made  the  necessary  reparation,  there  is  still  the  sin 
of  disobedience  against  God's  law  which  requires 
atonement.  Every  sin  against  our  neighbor  involves 
also  a  sin  of  disobedience  against  God.  The  child 
who  does  harm  to  his  brother  or  sister  against  the 
order  of  his  parents,  has  the  double  sin  to  atone  for 
— the  sin  against  his  brother  or  sister,  and  the  sin 
of  disobedience  to  his  parents.  One  can  elaborate 
still  further  in  the  explanation  of  this  idea  by  con- 
crete examples  from  child  life. 

The  most  important  step  in  the  process  of  re- 
pentance, however,  is  the  last  one  leading  to  resolu- 
tions not  to  sin  again.  True  repentance,  implying, 
as  it  does,  sincere  regret  for  past  actions,  must  cul- 
minate in  the  whole-hearted  desire  to  avoid  all  sin 
in  the  future  and  in  the  determination  to  withstand 
temptation  and  conquer  all  evil  inclinations.  Nor 
should  such  a  resolution  end  here.  It  must  also 
extend  to  the  determination  not  only  to  avoid  the 
evil,  but  also  to  seek  the  good  and  follow  it.  To 
do  the  good,  that  is,  to  observe  the  positive  laws  of 
religion  and  morality,  is  to  live  in  harmony  with  our 
better  selves.  It  also  has  the  power  of  preventing 
the  repetition  of  evil.  The  reformation  must  be  a 
radical  one.  It  must  enter  our  hearts  and  change 
our  attitude  toward  the  very  purpose  of  life  and  its 
duties. 

Fasting,  Prayer,  Charity. — The  "affliction  of  the 
soul"  commanded  on  this  day  is  interpreted  to  con- 
sist in  abstaining  from  food  and  drink  and  other 
physical  pleasures.  This  is  not  to  be  regarded 
merely  as  a  self-imposed  punishment  for  sins  com- 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezuish  Religion 


mitted,  but  chiefly  as  an  effort  to  get  away  from  the 
grosser  things  of  hfe  to  the  more  exalted  and  spirit- 
ual. By  refusing  to  satisfy  the  ordinary  cravings  of 
the  body,  we,  in  the  phraseology  of  the  Rabbis,  rise 
to  the  position  of  angels,  divested,  for  the  time  be- 
ing, of  the  coarse  and  carnal  and  filled  with  thoughts 
of  the  divine  and  the  eternal.  Fasting  also  helps  to 
crush  our  pride,  to  bring  us  to  contrition  and  to 
humble  us  before  God.  We  should  become  spirit- 
ually stronger  through  the  consciousness  of  physi- 
cal weakness.  It  emphasizes  the  great  truth  that 
"man  doth  not  live  by  bread  alone,  but  by  every- 
thing that  proceedeth  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  Lord 
doth  man  live"  (Deuteronomy  8:3). 

The  feelings  and  emotions  which  well  up  within 
the  human  breast  on  this  day  find  adequate  expres- 
sion in  the  beautiful  prayers  of  the  liturgy  of  the 
day.  These  prayers  are  a  reflex  of  what  the  Jewish 
soul,  throughout  the  ages,  experienced  on  this  most 
sacred  day  of  the  year.  Adoration  and  supplication, 
confession  of  guilt  and  cheering  comfort  in  the  hope 
of  a  greater  glory  still  to  come — all  these  form  the 
themes  for  poet  and  hymnologist,  chronicler  and  ex- 
egete,  who  unite  in  their  contributions  to  the  serv- 
ices of  the  day.  The  whole  day  is  spent  in  the  syna- 
gogue in  devotion  and  religious  exercise.  We  feel 
most  strongly  the  nearness  of  God,  and  w-e  pour  out 
out  hearts  to  him,  just  as  the  confiding  child  does 
before  his  loving  father.  The  Shekinah  (God's  Pres- 
ence), the  Rabbis  say,  is  then  very  near  the  habita- 
tions of  man,  is  willing  to  listen  to  our  prayers  and 
is  desirous  for  a  reconciliation  with  the  w^ayward 
and  sinful.  Just  as  fasting  is  symbolically  regarded 
the  offering  up  of  one's  fat  and  blood  on  the  altar  of 
God,  so  is  prayer  to  take  the  place  of  the  sacrifices 
in  the  Temple.     The  solemnity  of  the  occasion,  the 

90 


The  Day  of  Atonement 


strong  and  vivid  interpretation  which  these  prayers 
present  of  what  every  Jewish  heart  must  on  this  day 
feel,  cannot  fail  to  produce  a  spiritual  effect  on  the 
human  soul. 

Charity,  "more  acceptable  to  the  Lord  than  sacri- 
fices" (comp.  Proverbs  21:3),  is  regarded  as  the 
third  element  necessary  to  obtain  God's  favor  in 
"removing  the  evil  decree."  Benevolence  is  the 
feeling  of  dependence  on  God,  which  should  be  pre- 
dominant in  the  mind  on  this  day,  translated  into 
action.  Fasting  accentuates  the  equality  of  all  men, 
subject  to  the  same  physical  needs  and  weaknesses. 
Prayer  brings  out  the  equality  of  all  men  in  the 
sight  of  God,  possessed  of  the  same  soul  divine  and 
regarded  by  Him  with  the  same  loving  care  and  so- 
licitude. The  ofTerings  for  charitable  purposes  on 
this  holy  day,  customary  in  all  synagogues,  are  thus 
the  outward  expression  of  the  sentiment  that  all 
men  are  brothers,  children  of  one  good  and  kind 
Father.  In  Isaiah  58,  the  chapter  selected  as  the 
Haftarah  for  the  morning  service  of  the  day,  the 
real  purpose  of  the  fast  is  strikingly  emphasized  :  "Is 
not  this  (rather)  the  fast  that  I  have  chosen?  To 
loose  the  fetters  of  wickedness,  to  undo  the  bands 
of  the  yoke,  and  to  let  the  oppressed  go  free,  and 
that  ye  break  every  yoke?  Is  it  not  to  deal  thy 
bread  to  the  hungry,  and  that  thou  bring  the  poor 
that  are  cast  out  to  thy  house?  When  thou  seest 
the  naked,  that  thou  cover  him,  and  that  thou  hide 
not  thyself  from  thine  own  flesh?"    (Isaiah  58:6-7.) 

The  Services  of  the  Day. — In  Temple  times,  the 
Day  of  Atonement  was  celebrated  with  a  most  im- 
posing sacrificial  service.  The  whole  service  w^as 
performed  by  the  High  Priest,  who  alone,  and  only 
on  this  day,  entered  the  Holy  of  Holies,  there  ofifer- 

91 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

ing  up  incense.  In  the  presence  of  a  large  congrega- 
tion, assembled  in  the  courts  of  the  Temple,  the 
High  Priest  confessed  first  his  own  sins  and  the 
sins  of  his  household,  then  the  sins  of  the  priests  and 
finally  the  sins  of  the  whole  house  of  Israel.  The 
exact  wording  of  this  impressive  confession  is  still 
retained  and  reproduced  with  great  solemnity  dur- 
ing the  additional  service  (Musaf)  of  the  day.  ^ 

With  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  the  sacrificial 
system  was  abandoned  and  prayer  was  substi- 
tuted. A  custom  suggestive  of  the  sacrificial  cult 
is  still  retained  in  many  Jewish  homes  in  the  Kap- 
parot  ceremony.  This  consists  of  the  swinging  over 
one's  head,  on  the  evening  preceding  the  Atonement 
day,  a  fowl,  usually  a  hen  or  a  rooster,  and  pronounc- 
ing a  formula  by  which  the  fowl  is  made  to  suffer 
the  death  penalty  that  should  have  been  inflicted 
upon  the  person- performing  the  act.  In  spite  of  the 
great  opposition  to  this  custom  by  many^  Rabbis, 
on  the  ground  of  its  resemblance  to  a  sacrifice,  the 
offering  of  which  is  strictly  prohibited  since  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple,  the  custom  still  survives 
and  is  observed*  by  many  Jews  in  all  parts  of  the 
world.  Many  substitute  a  sum  of  money  for  the 
fowl,  and  this  money  is  then  given  to  charity.  (See 
Jewish  Encyclopedia,  s.  v.  Kapparot.) 

Five  distinct  services  are  read  on  the  Day  of 
Atonement:  The  Evening  Services  ('Arbit),  also 
called  "Kol  Nidre,"  because  the  opening  section  of 
the  service  begins  with  these  words;  the  Morning 
Service  (Shaharit)  ;  the  Additional  Service  (Musaf)  ; 
the  Afternoon  Service  (Minhah),  and  the  Closing 
Service  (Ne'ilah).  The  most  characteristic  feature 
of  all  of  these  services  is  the  confession  of  sins.  The 
form  of  confession  is  in  the  plural,  and  is  designed 
as  a  communal  prayer,  so  that  even  though  there  are 

92 


The  Day  of  Atonement 


in  the  long  lists  of  transgressions  some  of  which 
the  individual  reciting  the  confession  may  not  feel 
himself  guilty,  he  expresses  the  regret  that  he  was 
unable  to  prevent  others  from  committing  the  re- 
cited transgressions.  ''AH  Israelites  are  responsible 
for  one  another's  actions"  is  the  Rabbinic  dictum, 
supported  also  by  the  world's  verdict.  Hence,  we 
grieve  not  only  for  the  sins  which  we  ourselves 
have  committed,  but  also  for  those  which  we  did 
not  prevent  others  from  committing. 

The  regular  evening  service  is  preceded  by  the 
section  beginning  with  the  words  ''Kol  Nidre," 
which  is  a  formal  annulment  of  all  vows  that  one 
may  make  in  the  heat  of  passion,  when  overwhelmed 
by  a  great  grief  or  a  great  joy.  No  vows  which  im- 
ply a  promise  to  a  fellow-man  are  thereby  rescinded. 
The  annulment  was  instituted  merely  as  a  guard 
against  such  vows  as  might  remain  unfulfilled 
through  negligence  or  forgetfulness.  It  may  also 
have  obtained  an  additional  meaning  when  many 
Jews,  especially  in  Spain,  were  compelled  to  pro- 
fess Christianity  in  the  open  and  renounce  their 
Judaism.  Thus,  the  declaration  is  preceded  by  the 
permission,  announced  by  two  prominent  men  of 
the  congregation,  together  with  the  reader,  to  in- 
clude the  transgressors  in  the  community  of  wor- 
shippers. Because  this  is  recited  at  the  very  be- 
ginning of  the  service  (before  sunset),  and  because 
of  its  plaintive  and  touching  melody,  the  "Kol 
Nidre"  has  assumed  great  importance  in  the  liturgy. 
In  many  synagogues  two  learned  men,  with  scrolls 
in  their  arms,  are  stationed  on  either  side  of  the 
Reader,  who  repeats  the  formula  three  times,  while 
the  congregation  is  standing.  This  is  followed  by 
the  regular  evening  service,  alter  which  a  number  of 
penitential  hymns  and  prayers  are  recited. 

93 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

In  spite  of  the  constant  emphasis  laid  by  the 
Rabbis  on  the  fact  that  this  formula  refers  only  to 
oaths  in  which  the  interest  of  another  party  is  not 
involved,  the  wording  of  the  *'Kol  Nidre"  has  fre- 
quently given  rise  to  serious  accusations  against  the 
trustworthiness  of  an  oath  taken  by  a  Jew.  The  ene- 
mies of  the  Jews  pointed  to  this  formula  as  an  argu- 
ment against  accepting  the  testimony  given  by  a  Jew 
in  a  court  of  justice  under  oath.  This  resulted  in  a 
degrading  law  passed  in  several  states  which  com- 
pelled Jews  to  take  a  special  oath,  called  the  Jews' 
Oath  (More  Judaico),  which  continued  in  force 
until  very  recently.  In  view  of  the  misconstruction 
to  which  this  formula  is  open,  the  ''Kol  Nidre"  has 
been  removed  from  the  service  in  Reform  syna- 
gogues, although  its  melody  has  been  retained. 
(See  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  s.  v.  Kol  Nidre.) 

The  regular  morning  service  is  also  interspersed 
with  a  number  of  hymns  and  supplications.  It  is 
concluded  with  the  reading  from  the  Torah  of 
Leviticus  16,  where  the  order  of  the  sacrificial  serv- 
ice of  the  day  is  given.  The  Haftarah  is  most  ap- 
propriately taken  from  Isaiah  57:14-58:14,  w^here 
the  real  purpose  of  the  fast  day  is  described.  This 
is  followed  by  the  Memorial  service  for  the  dead, 
when  offerings  are  made  in  their  memory.  The  cus- 
tom of  lighting  large  candles  in  the  synagogue  or 
at  home,  which  should  burn  for  twenty-four  hours, 
is  also  associated  with  the  memory  of  the  dead,  and 
is  symbolic  of  the  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul  (comp.  Proverbs  20:27:  "The  spirit  of  man  is 
the  lamp  of  the  Lord").  In  the  Portuguese  syna- 
gogues the  memorial  service  for  the  dead  is  recited 
in  the  evening,  while  the  synagogues  using  the 
Union  Prayer  Book  hold  this  service  immediately 
before  the  concluding  service  of  the  day  (Neilah"). 

94 


TJic  Day  of  Atonement 


During  the  Musaf,  or  additional  servi.ce,  that 
stirring  picture  of  the  judgment  of  God,  contained 
in  the  hymn  beginning  with  the  words  ''U'Netaneh 
Tokef,"  which  is  recited  on  the  New  Year,  is  re- 
peated. The  most  characteristic  part  of  the  Musaf 
service  is  the  narrative  of  the  Temple  ritual  of  the 
day  ('Abodah).  This  is  vividly  depicted  by  the  poet 
in  a  series  of  narrative  hymns,  interwoven  with  the 
selections  from  the  Mishnah,  where  the  actual  words 
of  the  High  Priest  are  reproduced.  When  the  High 
Priest  made  his  confession,  he  pronounced  the  full 
name  of  God  (the  Tetragrammaton),  and  the  people, 
on  hearing  it,  prostrated  themselves.  While  the 
reader  at  present  does  not  pronounce  this  name,  the 
custom  of  prostrating  themselves  when  this  passage 
is  read  is  still  followed  by  observant  Jews  (Kor'im 
— bending  the  knee).  The  lengthy  narrative  of  the 
'Abodah  is  followed  by  a  series  of  dirges,  in  which 
the  poet  bewails  the  fact  that  this  is  now  but  a 
memory,  and  that  the  glory  of  the  imposing  service 
has  departed  from  Israel  with  the  destruction  of 
the  Temple  and  with  the  exile  of  the  Jews  from 
their  land. 

The  Minhah  service  begins  with  the  reading  from 
the  Torah  of  Leviticus  18,  the  section  on  forbidden 
marriages.  The  book  of  Jonah  is  read  as  the  Haf- 
tarah,  because  in  this  book  the  effect  of  true  repent- 
ance is  strikingly  illustrated,  showing  that  God  is 
ready  to  forgive  the  repentant  sinner,  whether  he 
be  Jew  or  Gentile. 

The  concluding  service  of  the  day,  Ne'ilah,  is  in- 
vested w^ith  special  solemnity  and  impressiveness. 
The  word  "Ne'ilah"  means  ^'closing,"  and  may  have 
originally  referred  to  the  closing  of  the  Temple 
gates  at  the  end  of  the  Day  of  Atonement,  when 
certain  prayers  were  recited.     It  has,  however,  in 

95 


MetJwds  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

the  course  of  time,  become  associated  with  the  clos- 
ing of  the  gates  of  Heaven,  when  the  fates  of  all 
men,  inscribed  on  Rosh  ha-Shanah,  were  finally 
sealed.  Hence,  in  the  prayers,  all  the  expressions 
''inscribe  us  for  life"  used  during  the  ten  penitential 
days,  are  changed  during  Ne'ilah  to  ''seal  us  for 
life."  The  ark  is  kept  open  during  the  whole  serv- 
ice, which  is  usually  read  by  the  Rabbi  or  another 
pious  and  learned  member  of  the  congregation,  and 
every  worshipper  then  makes  a  supreme  effort  for 
reconciliation  with  God.  The  service  concludes  with 
the  opening  sentence  of  the  Shema',  recited  by  the 
reader  and  the  congregation,  the  sentence,  "Praised 
be  the  name  of  His  glorious  Kingdom  forever  and 
ever,"  repeated  in  unison  three  times,  and  the 
phrase,;'The  Lord,  He  is  God"  (I  Kings,  18:39),  re- 
peated in  unison  seven  times.  Finally  the  Shofar  is 
blown  to  announce  the  conclusion  of  the  day. 

Fast  and  Feast  Day. — Though  inducing  sober 
thoughts  and  solemn  contemplations,  the  Day  of 
Atonement  is  still  to  be  observed  as  a  festival.  No 
manner  of  mourning  is  permitted.  One  should  ab- 
stain from  food  and  drink,  from  bathing  and  anoint- 
ing, but  one  is  not  permitted  to  inflict  upon  oneself 
any  unnecessary  punishments.  Although  the  wear- 
ing of  leather  shoes  is  forbidden,  the  other  garments 
worn  should  be  of  the  finest  one  can  afford.  The 
white  shroud  worn  by  the  men  in  the  synagogue  is 
not  to  be  a  reminder  of  death,  as  some  believe,  but 
it  rather  symbolizes  purity  and  festivity.  Women 
also  wear  white  garments  on  this  day  for  the  same 
reason.  The  day  should  be  regarded  as  a  special 
boon  from  God,  when  an  opportunity  is  afforded 
man  to  cleanse  himself  of  the  sordidness  of  sin,  and 
when  God's  mercy,  rather  than  His  justice,  prevails, 

96 


The  Day  of  Aioiicnicnt 


and  when  Satan,  the  Arch  Accuser  of  Israel,  is  not 
permitted  to  enter  the  presence  of  the  Most  High. 

In  Temple  times,  it  is  said,  the  day  was  observed 
with  much  rejoicing,  especially  after  the  High 
Priest  came  out  of  the  Holy  of  Holies  and  the  serv- 
ices were  concluded  without  a  mishap.  The  as- 
sembled multitudes,  confident  that  their  sins  had 
been  forgiven,  surrounded  him  with  their  congratu- 
lations and  the  nobles  escorted  him  home,  amidst 
much  rejoicing.  The  young  people  indulged  in 
dancing  and  merry-making,  and  the  joy  that  comes 
from  the  implicit  faith  in  the  mercy  of  God  prevailed 
everywhere. 

(Read  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  articles  Atonement; 
Day  of  Atonement;  Kol  Nidre ;  Kapparot ;  Con- 
fession of  Sins;  Abrahams,  ''Festival  Studies," 
chapters  V  and  XIV;  Joseph,  ''Judaism  as  Creed 
and  Life,"  pp.  194-208.) 

RESUME 

While  the  ideal  of  human  life  is  to  be  always  pure 
and  spotless,  shunning  evil  and  doing  good  (comp. 
Ecclesiastes  9:8;  read  the  beautiful  paraphrase  of 
the  Talmudic  interpretation  of  this  in  Lucas,  *Tal- 
mudic  Legends,"  p.  19,  'The  King;s  Banquet"), 
Judaism  is  practical  enough  to  recognize  the  human 
frailty  and  weakness  which  prevents  man  from  liv- 
ing up  to  this  grand  ideal.  The  institution  of  the 
Day  of  Atonement  is  an  admission  of  the  frailty 
of  human  nature  and  of  the  naturalness  of  sin, 
against  which  man  must  conduct  a  continuous 
struggle.  The  periodic  self-examination  and  intro- 
spection help  to  recall  man  from  his  evil  inclinations 
to  the  realization  of  his  better  nature.  Thus,  it  is 
of  incalculable  value  in  maintaining  the  high  stand- 

97 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

ard  of  life.  In  a  greater  degree  than  the  weekly- 
Sabbath,  the  annual  Day  of  Atonement  helps  to  ac- 
centuate the  sacredness  of  human  life  and  the  duty 
of  the  individual  to  maintain  it  in  a  state  of  holiness. 

The  comforting  message  of  Judaism  is  that  God's 
sympathy  is  with  the  sinner  who  makes  a  sincere 
effort  to  free  himself  from  the  sordidness  of  the  sin- 
ful life.  God  is  ready  to  meet  man  half  way  if  man 
makes  an  honest  endeavor  to  rise  to  God.  Heart- 
broken over  his  wickedness,  candidly  confessing  his 
guilt,  and  sincerely  determining  to  make  reparation 
and  amendment,  the  humblest  sinner  may  confi- 
dently expect  God's  mercy  and  forgiveness. 

**Fasting,  Prayer  and  Charity  remove  the  evil  de- 
cree." By  suppressing  our  physical  cravings  we  be- 
come humble  and  contrite  and  are  able  to  apprehend 
more  clearly  our  spiritual  nature.  The  emotions  of 
contrition  and  remorse  find  ample  expression  in  the 
glorious  prayers  of  the  day.  These  both  suggest 
and  give  expression  to  the  ideas  that  should  per- 
meate us  on  this  day.  Benevolence  and  charity 
towards  those  who  are  less  fortunate  than  we  are, 
bring  out  still  further  the  idea  of  the  common 
brotherhood  of  man  and  the  Fatherhood  of  God. 
Charity  emphasizes  the  positive  side  of  true  re- 
pentance. The  determination  to  abstain  from  evil 
must  be  supplemented  by  the  resolution  to  do  good 
in  order  to  have  a  positive  and  lasting  efifect  on  the 
soul.  The  constant  doing  of  good  is  in  itself  a  pre- 
ventative against  the  allurements  of  evil. 

The  services  of  the  day  are  arranged  so  as  to 
bring  out  in  greater  relief  the  idea  of  repentance  and 
of  God's  forgiving  nature.  Like  wayward  children 
who  have  strayed  from  the  path  laid  down  for  them 
by  a  loving  parent,  we  come  before  the  throne  of 
God,  full  of  remorse,  confessing  our  guilt  and  beg- 

98 


The  Day  of  Atonement 


ging  for  pardon,  for  life  and  for  moral  strength. 
Confident  of  His  sympathy  and  kindness,  we  are  at 
the  same  time  also  conscious  of  our  unworthiness  of 
His  pardon. 

The  glorious  service  of  the  day  in  Temple  times 
is  sadly  recalled,  but  the  hope  for  the  greater  future 
awaiting  Israel  is  also  strongly  emphasized. 

Confident  of  the  forgiveness  and  trustful  of  the 
mercy  of  God,  the  Jew  celebrates  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment as  a  festival,  solemn  but  hope-inspiring.  Sin 
is  the  result  of  human  weakness.  Man  must  and 
can  overcome  it.  God  is  near,  awaiting  the  efforts 
of  man  to  strive  against  the  allurements  of  sin.  He 
is  ready  to  help  him  in  his  struggle,  if  he  only  puts 
forth  an  honest  effort  to  lead  the  higher  life.^  This 
is  indeed  a  cheering  message  that  the  day  brings  to 
all  men.  Not  a  relentless  judge,  but  our  own  loving 
Father,  sits  in  judgment  over  our  actions  and 
thoughts.  In  the  words  of  Rabbi  Akiba:  "Happy 
art  thou,  O  Israel!  Before  whom  art  thou  being 
purified  and  who  purifieth  thee?  Thy  Father,  who 
is  in  Heaven." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  Day  of  Atonement? 
Define  the  word  "Teshubah.'' 

2.  Describe  fully  the  various  stages  in  repentance. 

3.  In  what  way  does  a  sin  toward  a  fellow-man 
constitute  also  a  sin  against  God?    Illustrate. 

4.  What  is  the  purpose  of  fasting? 

5.  What  part  is  assumed  by  charity  in  the  work 
of  repentance? 

6.  In  what  ceremony  does  the  desire  for  sacrificial 
atonement  still  survive? 

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Methods  of  Teaching   the  JeiuisJi  Religion 

7.  Mention  the  five  services  of  the  day  and  the 
characteristic  features  of  each. 

8.  Why  is  the  form  of  the  Confession  of  Sins  in 
the  plural  number? 

9.  Relate  briefly  the  contents  of  the  book  of  Jonah, 
showing  the  appropriateness  of  reading  this  book 
on  the  Day  of  Atonement. 

10.  Explain  the  festive  character  of  the  day  in 
olden  times  and  at  the  present  time. 


100 


VIII.    THE  MINOR  FESTIVALS 

The  Minor  Festivals. — Besides  the  festivals  enu- 
merated in  the  Pentateuch,  there  are  also  several 
other  days  in  the  Jewish  calendar  which  commem- 
orate some  happy  events  in  the  history  of  the  nation 
and  are  observed  as  holidays.  These  were  instituted 
by  later  authorities  and  were  accepted  by  the  great 
body  of  Israel.  They  do  not  partake  of  the  sanctity 
of  the  feasts  mentioned  in  the  Torah.  Therefore, 
all  manner  of  work  is  permitted  on  these  days.  They 
are  marked,  however,  by  peculiar  ceremonies  ob- 
served in  the  synagogue  and  in  the  home,  distin- 
guishing them  from  the  other  days  of  the  year. 
Chief  among  these  are  the  festivals  of  Hanukkah 
and  Purirn. 

Hanukkah. — The  festival  of  Hanukkah  is  cele- 
brated for  eight  days,  beginning  with  the  25th  day 
of  Kislev.  It  commemorates  the  victory  of  the 
Maccabean  heroes  over  the  Syrian  army,  in  the  year 
165  B.  C.  E. 

Although  the  festival  has  no  Biblical  origin,  hav- 
ing been  instituted  by  the  early  Rabbis,  it  has  been 
affectionately  cherished  by  the  Jewish  people 
throughout  all  these  centuries,  because  of  the  glori- 
ous memories  it  calls  forth.  These  memories  fill 
us  with  a  justifiable  pride  at  the  achievements  of 
our  heroes  and  martyrs,  who  fought^  valiantly  for 
the  glory  of  God  and  for  their  religious  freedom. 
Because  the  war  was  primarily  a  religious  war,  in 
which  freedom  of  conscience  was  involved,  and  in 
which  the  political  aspect  was  only  of  secondary  im- 

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Methods  of  Teaching   the  Jezvish  Religion 


portance,  its  commemoration  has  made  such  a 
strong  appeal  to  the  Jewish  consciousness.  Our 
early  history  has  preserved  the  records  of  greater 
victories,  fraught  w^ith  much  greater  political  conse- 
quences than  the  victory  of  the  Maccabees.  But  we 
do  not  celebrate  the  victories  of  Joshua,  David  or 
the  other  successful  warriors  and  generals.  In  the 
Maccabean  war,  the  Jewish  religion  was  at  stake. 
This  war  was  more  of  a  struggle  between  Judaism 
and  Hellenism  than  between  Jews  and  Syrians. 
And  while  we  admire  the  prowess  of  the  great  war- 
riors, their  indomitable  courage  in  face  of  almost 
insurmountable  difficulties,  we  admire  them  more 
for  their  religious  zeal  and  enthusiasm.  We  are 
grateful  to  them  for  saving  the  Jewish  state  from 
foreign  invasions,  but  we  are  more  grateful  to  them 
for  saving  Judaism  from  pollution  and  possible  ex- 
tinction. 

Presentation  c£  the  Story. — In  presenting  the 
story  of  Hanukkah  as  part  of  a  lesson  in  religion, 
the  teacher  may  omit  many  of  the  details  which 
would  be  necessarily  included  when  the  same  lesson 
is  taught  as  part  of  the  history.  (See  Course  VII. 
A.  Lesson  5,  The  Maccabees.)  The  prevalent  con- 
ditions of  the  time,  the  various  influences  operating 
in  Jewry  and  the  importance  of  these  events  to  the 
future  development  of  Judaism,  however,  must  be 
given  with  clearness  and  precision.  The  teacher 
should  endeavor  especially  to  find  the  point  of  con- 
tact in  the  part  of  history  already  covered  by  the 
class,  even  though  he  may  find  it  necessary  to  pass 
over  ^  several  centuries,  with  the  barest  outlines. 
For  instance,  if  the  children  in  the  class  have  not 
gone  further  in  their  Bible  history  than  the  period  of 
the  Kings,  the  teacher  should  begin  there,  satisfy- 

102 


The  Minor  Festivals 


ing  himself  with  a  mere  reference  to  the  destruction 
of  the  Jewish  state,  the  exile  of  the  Jews  to  Babylon, 
their  restoration  under  the  Persian  rule,  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  Temple  under  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  and 
the  passing  of  the  Jewish  state  from  Persian  to 
Greek  rule  with  the  conquest  of  Persia  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  the  point  from  which  the  story 
should  be  given  in  greater  detail.  The  approximate 
dates  of  these  various  events  should  be  mentioned, 
so  that  the  child's  perspective  may  not  become  con- 
fused, and  the  background  be  definitely  and  clearly 
set. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  here  the  story  in  detail, 
since  this  can  be  found  in  the  two  Books  of  the 
Maccabees,  in  Josephus'  Antiquities,  or  in  any  other 
Jewish  history  of  more  modern  days.  A  few  points, 
however,  requiring  emphasis  and  elaboration,  will 
be  treated  here. 

Judaism  and  Hellenism. — With  the  conquest  of 
Persia  by  Alexander  the  Great,  in  332  B.  C.  E.,  the 
Jews  came  under  the  Greek  rule.  The  rule  at  first 
was  not  oppressive  to  the  Jews  and  the  change  was 
hardly  perceptible.  Whether  subject  to  Egypt  or 
Syria,  the  Jews  were  allowed  to  maintain  much  of 
their  independence  in  internal  afifairs  and  were  but 
little  interfered  with  in  their  religious  or  political 
life.  It  was  only  after  Antiochus  Epiphanes  became 
King  of  Syria  (175  B.  C.  E.)  that  the  Jews  began 
to  feel  the  yoke  of  the  oppressor. 

The  contact  between  Jew  and  Greek,  however, 
exerted  a  baneful  efifect  upon  the  Jews,  spiritually 
and  morally.  The  Greeks,  although  a  pagan  people, 
were  the  exponents  of  the  highest  culture  in  an- 
tiquity. They  contributed  much  to  the  intellectual 
and  artistic  wealth  of  the  human  race.  Their  philos- 

103 


Methods  of  Teaching   iJie  Je-cvish   Religion 

ophers  and  thinkers,  their  poets  and  sculptors,  are 
studied  and  admired  to  the  present  day.  It  was  but 
natural,  therefore,  that  the  Jews  should  be  attracted 
by  such  a  people  and  desire  to  imitate  them  and 
their  culture.  The  Greeks,  however,  entertained 
entirely  different  views  about  life  and  its  purpose 
than  those  held  by  the  Jewish  people.  Their  stand- 
ards of  morality  were  different.  Their  conception 
of  duty  and  their  manner  of  life  varied  greatly  from 
those  of  the  Jews.  Many  of  the  Greeks  regarded 
pleasure  as  the  sole  aim  in  life  and  indulged  in  all 
kinds  of  excesses,  which  shocked  the  finer  sensibili- 
ties of  the  pious  Jew.  Others  worshipped  physical 
beauty  and  gave  themselves  up  to  the  development 
of  the  body,  by  means  of  gymnastics  and  exercises 
of  all  kinds.  These  practices  were  brought  to  Judea 
by  the  Greek  soldiers  and  rulers,  and  soon  found 
many  adherents  among  the  Jews,  especially  the 
more  wealthy  classes,  who  wished  to  imitate  the 
Greeks,  the  rulers  of  the  land.  These  imitators 
called  themselves  Hellenists,  i.e.,  followers  of  Greek 
culture,  which  to  many  of  them  meant  only  the  ex- 
change of  the  righteous  rules  of  the  moral  life  en- 
joined by  Judaism  for  the  more  easy-going  and  the 
more  convenient  mode  of  life  followed  by  the  pleas- 
ure-loving Greeks.  The  young  especially  w^ere 
attracted  to  this  new  life.  They  assumed  Greek 
names,  followed  diligently  all  the  practices  of  the 
Greeks,  and  became  Greeks  in  every  way,  except 
in  that  they  refused  to  w^orship  the  Greek  gods. 

The  consequence  of  this  change,  which  was  w^ide- 
spread  in  Judea,  might  have  meant  the  overthrow 
of  all  the  exalted  conceptions  of  religion  and  moral- 
ity which  Judaism  teaches.  There  w^as,  indeed,  a 
small  band  of  Jews  who  opposed  this  influence  with 
all  their  energies  and  fought  against  it  with  might 

104 


The  Minor  Festivals 


and  main.  These  opponents  were  known  as  the 
Hasidim  (pious  ones).  But  they  would  have  been 
powerless  in  face  of  this  mighty  onslaught  had  it 
not  been  for  a  combination  of  circumstances,  by 
which  Providence  does  its  work  in  the  world,  which 
saved  Judaism  from  destruction  and  which  rescued 
its  noble  ideals  and  teachings  for  posterity. 

The  Struggle. — Antiochus  Epiphanes  was  thirst- 
ing for  power,  and  an  opportunity  to  display  his 
tyranny  presented  itself  in  the  conditions  prevailing 
in  the  small  vassal  state  of  Judea.  The  weakening 
of  the  religious  and  moral  bonds,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Greek  practices  and  ideas,  was  the  cause  of 
many  quarrels  and  dissensions  in  Jerusalem.  The 
Highpriesthood,  the  most  exalted  office  in  the  Jew- 
ish commonwealth,  was  degraded  into  a  political 
office,  which  the  Greek  authorities  awarded  to  the 
highest  bidder.  Jewish  High  Priests  appointed  by 
the  Greeks  were,  as  a  rule,  unworthy  men,  devoid  of 
all  religious  feeling  and  even  disloyal  to  the  national 
ideals  of  the  people,  wdiom  they  were  supposed  to 
represent.  The  people  looked  upon  them  as  usurp- 
ers and  refused  to  submit  to  their  authority.  In 
consequence  of  one  of  these  rivalries  for  the  office, 
Antiochus  was  called  in  to  restore  peace.  This  was 
the  pretext  for  which  he  was  waiting.  It  gave  him 
the  opportunity  to  interfere  in  the  internal  affairs 
of  the  nation  and  to  display  his  power.  His  desire 
was  "that  all  should  be  one  people  and  that  every 
one  should  obey  his  laws."  He,  therefore,  issued  de- 
crees prohibiting  the  Jews  from  observing  the  Sab- 
baths and  holidays,  and  compelled  them  to  offer  sac- 
rifices to  the  Greek  gods,  for  whom  altars  were 
erected  in  every  city  of  Judea.  By  forcing  them  to 
a1)andon  their  religion  and  their  worship  and  follow 

105 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

the  pagan  practice  of  the  Greeks,  he  expected  to 
effect  a  thorough  assimilation  of  the  two  peoples. 
Some  Jews  yielded  to  the  cruel  demands  of  the 
tyrant,  either  because  they  were  too  cowardly  to 
resist  them  or  because  they  were  in  entire  accord 
with  the  king's  aims  and  policies.  Many  Jews,  how- 
ever, stoutly  refused  to  follow  the  Greek  worship, 
even  though  such  refusal  meant  death.  They  will- 
ingly suffered  martyrdom  rather  than  give  up  their 
cherished  faith  and  practices.  (In  this  connection 
the  teacher  may  relate  the  legends  of  the  Hasidim 
hiding  in  caves  for  the  purpose  of  observing  their 
religious  ceremonies,  of  Hannah  and  her  seven  sons, 
and  other  examples  of  heroism  on  the  part  of  the 
steadfast  and  pious  of  the  nation.  See  books  re- 
ferred to  above  and  articles  in  Jewish  Ency- 
clopedia.) 

Foremost  among  these  pious  ones  were  Mattathias 
and  his  sons.  They  would  not  submit  to  the  royal 
decrees,  nor  would  they  tacitly  accept  the  fate  of  the 
martyr.  Possessed  of  a  strong  faith  in  the  right- 
eousness of  their  cause,  and  in  their  own  abilities 
to  defend  that  cause,  and  placing  their  trust  in 
God,  they  raised  the  flag  of  rebellion  in  the  small 
town  of  Modin,  determined  to  fight  for  their  rights 
and,  if  necessary,  to  die  fighting  for  them.  These 
noble  heroes  soon  attracted  a  number  of  loyal  and 
zealous  men,  who  were  inspired  with  a  similar  great 
hope,  which  only  implicit  faith  in  God  and  in  them- 
selves could  give.  They  might  have  submitted  to 
infringements  on  their  political  rights,  as  many  of 
their  ancestors  and  more  of  their  descendants  have 
done.  But  when  their  religion  was  assailed,  when 
that  which  was  more  precious  to  them  than  life  itself 
was  in  danger  of  destruction,  these  meek  Hasidim 
suddenly  turned  into  great  warriors  and  heroes,  and 

106 


The  Minor  Festivals 


their  deficiencies  in  military  skill  and  training  were 
fully  compensated  for  by  their  zeal  and  courage, 
which  made  them  a  worthy  match  for  the  well- 
trained  Greek  legions. 

The  Maccabees. — Mattathias  did  not  live  to  see 
the  realization  of  his  great  hope.  His  work,  how- 
ever was  worthily  carried  on  by  his  five  sons,  chief 
among  whom  v/as  Judah  Maccabee  (probably  from 
a  word  meaning  ''a  hammer" — an  appropriate  appel- 
lation. Some  derive  this  word  from  the  legend  con- 
cerning the  motto,  supposed  to  have  been  inscribed 
on  their  banner,  "Mi  Kamoka  Ba-Elim  Adonai," 
"Who  is  like  unto  Thee,  O  Lord,  among  the  mighty  ?" 
Exodus  15:11,  the  first  letters  of  which  make  the 
word  MKBI).  With  a  small  band  of  followers,  Ju- 
dah succeeded  in  breaking  the  strength  of  the  Greek 
armies,  which  Antiochus  kept  pouring  into  the  coun- 
try, won  battle  after  battle  and  finally  gained  pos- 
session of  Jerusalem.  The  Temple,  however,  was 
polluted  by  the  abominable  worship  of  the  Greek 
gods,  and  it  was  necessary  to  cleanse  its  premises 
and  re-dedicate  it  anew  to  the  service  of  the  God  of 
Israel.  The  ceremony  of  consecration  took  place 
on  the  25th  day  of  Kislev,  in  the  year  165  B.  C.  E., 
and  the  festivities  lasted  for  eight  days.  In  com- 
memoration of  this  great  event,  the  festival  of  Han- 
ukkah  (Dedication)  was  instituted  to  be  celebrated 
for  eight  days,  beginning  on  the  day  when  the  Tem- 
ple was  re-dedicated  by  the  Maccabees. 

These  heroes,  who  struggled  against  almost  insur- 
mountable odds  and  gained  their  victory  purely  by 
dint  of  their  great  moral  courage  and  devotion  to  the 
highest  ideals  of  the  human  mind,  have  always  stood 
out  in  Jewish  history  as  the  most  powerful  repre- 
sentatives of  the  type  of  heroes  that  the  Jew  admires 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

most.  Their  work  and  their  achievements  are  the 
concrete  symbols  of  the  hand  of  God  in  Jewish  his- 
tory, of  the  protection  He  always  vouchsafed  to  His 
people,  when  they  put  their  trust  in  Him.  The 
courage  and  valor  displayed  by  the  Maccabean 
heroes  may  indeed  be  admired  by  all  men,  but  the 
motives  that  prompted  the  great  courage,  the  senti- 
ments which  imbued  them  with  that  glorious  faith 
that  led  them  to  victory,  can  best  be  appreciated  by 
the  Jew,  who  suffered  so  much  for  his  religious  con- 
victions. Thus,  while  not  invested  with  the  impor- 
tance attached  to  the  Biblical  feasts,  Hanukkah 
always  appealed  to  the  Jew  with  great  force,  and 
the  memories  awakened  by  its  observance  quickened 
his  pulse  and  strengthened  his  faith  in  himself  and 
in  his  God.  We  are  grateful  to  the  Maccabean 
heroes,  not  so  much  for  saving  the  Jews,  as  for  sav- 
ing Judaism ;  not  so  much  for  gaining  political  free- 
dom for  the  Jewish  people,  as  for  restoring  the 
Jewish  religion  and  Jewish  ideals  to  their  pristine 
beauty  and  holiness.  The  blow  they  dealt  to  Hel- 
lenism was  of  more  consequence  to  the  Jews,  and 
even  to  the  world  at  large,  than  the  blow  they  dealt 
to  the  army  of  Antiochus. 

The  Manner  of  Observance. — The  most  distinc- 
tive ceremony  of  the  Hanukkah  festival  is  the  light- 
ing of  the  Hanukkah  lights  in  the  home  and  in  the 
synagogue.  A  beautiful  legend  is  related  in  expla- 
nation of  this  ceremony  and  of  the  custom  of  observ- 
ing the  holiday  for  eight  days.  When  the  Temple 
was  re-dedicated  by  Judah  Maccabee,  the  Rabbis 
relate,  and  the  perpetual  lamp  was  to  be  lighted, 
there  was  found  only  one  small  flask  of  oil  which 
had  remained  undefiled  by  the  idolatrous  enemy. 
This  contained   sufficient  oil   to   last  only  for  one 

108 


The  Minor  Festivals 


night,  but  by  a  miracle,  it  lasted  for  eight  days,  until 
fresh  oil  could  be  procured.  Hence,  the  custom  was 
established  of  celebrating  the  festival  for  eight  days, 
by  means  of  illumination.  On  the  first  evening, 
one  light  is  lit,  and  on  every  succeeding  evening  an 
additional  light  is  burned,  until  the  eighth  day, 
when  eight  lights  are  lighted.  While  the  candles 
are  burning,  it  is  customary  not  to  do  any  work. 
Children  are  permitted  to  indulge  in  games  during 
that  time,  and  in  consequence  of  this  some  peculiar 
games  have  grown  up  among  the  Jews  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  (See  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  articles:  Hanuk- 
kah.  Gambling;  also  Abrahams'  ''Festival  Studies," 
ch.  XXI ;  Rosenau,  ''Jewish  Ceremonial  Institutions 
and  Customs,"  pp.  127-130.)  The  lighting  of  the 
Hanukkah  lights  is  preceded  by  two  benedictions, 
the  first  referring  to  the  commandment  itself  and  the 
second  referring  to  the  miracles  performed  at  the 
time  of  the  wars.  On  the  first  night,  a  third  bless- 
ing, Sheheheyanu,  is  added.  (See  Prayer  Book.) 
After  the  blessings  are  pronounced  the  very  popular 
hymn  Ma'oz  Zur  is  chanted. 

The  Hallel  (Psalms  113-118)  is  recited  every  day 
of  the  feast  during  the  service  in  the  synagogue.  A 
special  prayer,  commemorative  of  the  occasion,  is 
inserted  in  the  Amidah  (The  Eighteen  Benedic- 
tions), and  also  in  the  Grace  after  meals.  The  read- 
ing of  the  Torah  is  taken  from  Numbers  7,  the 
appropriate  verses  for  each  day.  This  selection  deals 
with  the  dedication  of  the  altar  in  the  wilderness 
and  was,  therefore,  regarded  appropriate  for  the 
festival  of  Dedication. 

Purim. — The  Feast  of  Purim  (literally  Lots),  ob- 
served on  the  14th  day  of  Adar,  is  of  Biblical  origin, 
having  its  rise  in  the  events  narrated  in  the  Book  of 

109 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

Esther.  These  events  are  said  to  have  occurred 
when  the  Jews  lived  in  a  foreign  land,  removed  from 
their  native  soil.  In  Persia,  the  Jews  fared  well  and 
enjoyed  many  privileges,  so  that  many  of  them  re- 
garded their  position  there  quite  secure.  It  was, 
therefore,  a  rude  awakening  for  them  to  find  that  the 
whim  of  an  underling,  an  upstart  who  was  thirsty 
for  power  and  glory,  might  in  one  moment  bring 
about  their  utter  destruction.  Haman,  the  chief 
minister  of  King  Ahasuerus  of  Persia,  decided  to 
exterminate  all  the  Jews  of  the  kingdom,  because 
one  Jew  offended  his  dignity.  His  plea  with  the 
king  was  based  on  the  ground  that  the  Jews  were 
a  people  separate  from  other  peoples  and  unlike  all 
other  peoples,  and  "it  is  no  profit  for  the  king  to 
tolerate  them."  How  familiar  that  accusation 
sounds!  Mordecai,  the  immediate  cause  of  provo- 
cation to  the  haughty  Haman,  because  he  would  pay 
divine  homage  to  no  man,  was  also  the  cause  of  de- 
liverance. His  appeal  to  Queen  Esther  to  intercede 
in  behalf  of  her  people,  even  though  her  own  life  be 
endangered  thereby,  breathes  the  highest  faith  in 
God  and  the  most  exalted  loyalty  to  Judaism.  The 
day  set  by  Haman,  as  most  favorable  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Jews,  is  observed  as  a  fast  day,  while 
the  following  day  is  kept  as  a  day  of  joy  and  thanks- 
giving in  commemoration  of  the  great  deliverance. 
The  Festival  of  Purim  has  been  a  powerful  lesson 
to  the  Jews  in  exile.  It  taught  them  not  to  rely 
on  the  good-will  extended  to  them  by  the  rulers  of 
any  land,  nor  to  despair  when  dangers  were  most 
threatening  and  persecutions  most  cruel.  "Put  not 
your  trust  in  princes,  nor  in  the  son  of  man,  in 
whom  there  is  no  help.  *  *  *  Happy  is  he 
whose  help  is  the  God  of  Jacob,  whose  hope  is  in 
the  Lord  his  God"  (Psalms  146:3,  5).     The  story 

110 


The  Minor  Festivals 


of  Purim  has  been  repeated  many  times  in  Jewish 
history,  in  one  form  or  another.  Noble-minded 
rulers,  who  allowed  the  Jews  freedom  and  equality, 
were  frequently  influenced  by  matters  of  policy  or 
by  the  machinations  of  zealots  or  wily  schemers  to 
seek  the  destruction  of  our  ancestors.  In  such  times 
the  lessons  gained  from  the  story  of  Purim  helped 
them  in  their  attitude,  both  toward  the  good  and 
the  subsequent  evils.  They  learned  to  rely  only  on 
God,  who  is  the  Source  of  all  comfort  and  pro- 
tection. 

Manner  of  Observance. — ^The  Book  of  Esther 
(Megillah  "scroll")  is  read  in  the  synagogue  both 
at  the  evening  and  morning  services,  preceded  by 
three  blessings,  one  referring  to  the  commandment 
itself,  the  second  to  the  miracles  performed  at  the 
time  in  behalf  of  the  Jews,  and  the  third,  Shehe- 
heyanu,  in  gratitude  that  we  are  permitted  to  cele- 
brate the  occasion.  The  story  of  the  Book  of 
Esther,  containing  a  number  of  dramatic  elements, 
was  early  in  Jewish  history  adopted  for  dramatic 
presentation.  It  was  customary  for  groups  of 
amateur  actors  to  go  from  house  to  house  and  pre- 
sent this  story  to  the  great  delight  of  the  children. 
Many  such  versions  have  come  down  to  us  from 
the  Middle  Ages.  In  more  modern  days,  this  is 
done  in  the  various  religious  schools  and  the  parts 
are  taken  by  the  children  themselves.  (See  Abra- 
hams' "Festival  Studies,"  Chs.  VI,  XVIII,  XIX; 
"Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  Ch.  XIV.) 

The  exchange  of  gifts  between  friends  and  the 
sending  of  presents  to  the  poor  on  the  day  of  Purim 
is  expressly  enjoined  in  the  Book  of  Esther  (9:22). 
This  beautiful  custom,  through  which  the  social  sen- 
timents find  a  noble  expression,  is  worthy  of  pres- 

111 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

ervation.  In  olden  times,  it  was  customary  to  en- 
trust this  duty  to  the  children,  who  were  the  bearers 
of  gifts  from  friend  to  friend  and  carried  the  pack- 
ages to  the  poor.  The  pleasure  thus  afforded  the 
child  of  being  the  messenger  of  cheer  and  joy  was 
indeed  very  great. 

Joy  and  happiness  is  the  keynote  of  this  festival. 
For  the  principal  meal,  begun  in  the  afternoon  and 
lasting  until  late  in  the  evening  (Seudah),  the  Jew- 
ish housewife  was  wont  to  prepare  the  best  and 
finest  that  her  culinary  skill  could  invent.  Indul- 
gence in  drink  was  not  discouraged  at  this  meal  and 
various  entertainments  were  provided  to  delight  the 
hearts  of  young  and  old. 

The  fifteenth  of  Adar  is  designated  as  Shushan 
Purim  because  the  people  of  Shushan  observed 
Purim  on  that  day  (Esther  9:18),  and  it  is  kept 
as  a  semi-holiday. 

Other  Memorable  Days. — The  thirty-third  day  of 
Sefirah  (Lag  ba-'Omer),  corresponding  to  the  eigh- 
teenth day  of  lyar,  is  called  ^'Scholars'  Feast,"  be- 
cause the  legend  has  it  that  a  plague  that  raged 
among  the  many  disciples  of  Rabbi  Akiba  (135 
C.  E.)  was  checked  on  this  day. 

The  three  days  preceding  the  Feast  of  Weeks 
(Shabuot)  are  designated  as  the  'Three  Days  of 
Separation"  (Sheloshet  Yeme  Hagbalah),  in  com- 
memoration of  the  order  given  to  the  children  of 
Israel  to  sanctify  themselves  before  the  Revelation 
(Exodus  19:  10-12). 

The  fifteenth  day  of  Ab  is  observed  as  a  semi- 
festival,  for  various  reasons,  one  of  which  is  that  it 
commemorates  the  date  when  the  Benjamites  were 
reconciled  with  the  other  Israelites  (Judges  21). 
The  Mishnah  preserves  a  tradition  of  the  joyousness 

112 


The  Minor  Festivals 


that  marked  the  celebration  of  the  day,  the  chief 
feature  being  the  dances  in  which  the  daughters  of 
Jerusalem,  both  rich  and  poor,  took  part. 

The  fifteenth  day  of  Shebat  is  observed  as  the 
"New  Year  for  Trees."  It  is  customary  to  eat 
different  kinds  of  fruit  on  that  day,  especially  such 
as  grow  in  Palestine,  as  figs,  dates,  pomegranates, 
or  carobs. 

RESUME 

The  Minor  Feasts  arc  of  great  value  in  niaintain- 
ing  and  fostering  the  Jewish  historic  consciousness. 
They  stimulate  a  pride  in  the  Jewish  past  and 
strengthen  the  loyalty  to  Jewish  traditions.  Han- 
ukkah,  perhaps  more  than  any  other  of  the  Jewish 
feasts,  helps  to  strengthen  that  bond  of  union  with 
the  past  of  Israel,  and  its  memories  make  a  special 
appeal  to  the  young,  whose  imagination  is  fired  by 
the  glowing  achievements  of  the  heroes  and  mar- 
tyrs of  that  great  war. 

In  presenting  the  lesson  on  Hanukkah,  the  teacher 
might  begin  by  narrating  the  events  which  the  fes- 
tival commemorates,  as  indicated  above.  Another 
method  might  be  followed  to  advantage,  especially 
when  the  class  is  not  sufficiently  advanced  in  his- 
tory. The  point  of  contact  might  be  found  in  the 
observance  of  the  festival,  which  might  form  the 
starting  point,  and  the  story  might  then  be  pre- 
sented in  explanation  of  the  ceremonies,  many  of 
which  are  probably  familiar  to  all  Jewish  children. 
The  same  method  may  be  pursued  in  presenting 
the  lesson  on  Purim,  or  any  other  festival. 

The  point  of  emphasis  in  the  story  of  Hanukkah 
should  be  the  fact  that  this  was  a  w^1r  for  principle 
and  conviction  and  not  for  glory  and  power.  The 
consequences  of  the  w^ar  on  the  future  development 

113 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


of  Judaism,  in  so  far  as  it  weakened  the  growing 
influence  of  Hellenism,  should  also  be  brought  out 
prominently. 

In  the  lesson  on  Purim,  the  emphasis  should  be 
laid  on  the  entire  dependence  of  Israel  on  God's 
protection  and  guidance.  Prosperity  and  freedom 
should  not  make  us  forget  our  duties  to  God  and  to 
our  religion;  adversity  and  persecution  should  not 
make  us  despair  of  God's  favors  and  protection. 
The  story  of  Purim  was  regarded  by  the  Jews  of  the 
Middle  Ages  as  symbolic  of  their  condition  and  fate 
in  the  various  lands  where  Jews  resided.  Jewish 
history  records  a  number  of  Purims  observed  in 
various  communities  to  commemorate  the  escape 
from  the  evil  plots  of  rulers  and  princes  against 
Israel.  Haman  became  a  generic  name  in  Jewish 
history  by  which  the  ever  recurring  antisemite  was 
designated.  (See  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  article 
Purim.) 

The  quaint  ceremonies  and  observances  of  these 
days  should  be  fully  explained.  They  are  exceed- 
ingly interesting  in  themselves,  and  many  of  them 
may  easily  be  adapted  in  modern  days  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  Judaism  and  the  Jewish  people. 

THE   MINOR   FASTS 

Minor  Fasts.— The  only  fast  day  in  the  Jewish 
calendar,  enjoined  in  the  Torah,  is  the  Day  of 
Atonement.  The  fasting  on  this  day,  as  has  been 
pointed  out  (see  Chapter  VII),  is  purely  for  re- 
ligious reasons,  having  as  its  object  the  effort  to 
remove  oneself  from  the  material  and  the  worldly 
and  approach  the  spiritual  and  the  divine.  Hence, 
although  the  "soul  is  afflicted,"  the  day  is  still  ob- 
served as  a  holiday  when  no  sadness  or  mourning 

114 


The  Minor  Festivals 


is  permitted.  It  is  intended  mainly  for  individual 
introspection,  for  a  reckoning  between  man  and  his 
conscience,  between  man  and  his  God. 

There  are,  however,  several  other  fast  days  in 
the  Jewish  calendar  which  are  of  an  entirely  differ- 
ent origin  and  serve  also  a  different  purpose.  They 
commemorate  some  sad  events  in  the  history  of 
the  Jewish  people,  and  therefore  tend  towards 
strengthening  the  historic  consciousness  of  the  Jew, 
the  bond  of  union  that  unites  Israel  with  his  past. 
The  fasting  on  these  days  serves  to  recall  the  ca- 
lamities which  befell  the  nation  and  to  make  the 
present  generation,  as  it  were,  participants  in  those 
misfortunes.  They  are  national  days  of  mourning, 
mostly  centering  around  the  events  surrounding  the 
destruction  of  the  Jewish  State,  the  greatest  mis- 
fortune that  befell  Israel. 

These  are:  The  Fast  of  Tebet  (Tebet  10)  com- 
memorating the  beginning  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem 
under  Nebuchadnezzar  (II  Kings  25:1;  Jeremiah 
52:4);  the  Fast  of  Tammuz  (Tammuz  17),  com- 
memorating the  breach  made  in  the  wall  of  Jerusa- 
lem (II  Kings  25  :  3,  4 ;  Jeremiah  52  :  6,  7 ;  the  ninth 
is  mentioned  there,  but  because  during  the  war  wdth 
the  Romans,  the  breach  in  the  wall  was  made  on 
the  seventeenth,  that  day  is  observed  as  the  fast 
day)  ;  the  Fast  of  Ab  (Ab  9),  commemorating  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  and  the  destruction  of  the  Temple 
(II  Kings  25:8,  9;  Jeremiah  52:12,  13;  although 
other  dates  are  given  there.  Rabbinic  tradition  has 
it  that  both  the  first  and  the  second  Temple  were 
set  on  fire  on  the  ninth,  toward  evening,  and  con- 
tinued burning  through  the  tenth)  ;  the  Fast  of 
Gedaliah  (Tishri  3),  the  anniversary  of  the  assassi- 
nation of  Gedaliah,  the  prince  whom  Nebuchad- 
nezzar appointed  governor  of  Palestine  (II  Kings 

115 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jeivish  Religion 

25:25,  Jeremiah  41:1-2),  and  the  Fast  of  Esther 
(Adar  13),  the  day  appointed  by  Haman  for  the 
slaughter  of  the  Jews  in  Persian  dominions  (Esther 
3:  13).  The  first  four  fasts  are  connected  with  the 
destruction  of  the  Jewish  State  and  are  also  prob- 
ably referred  to  in  the  Bible  (Zechariah  8:  19),  thus 
indicating  their  antiquity.  The  Fast  of  Esther  is 
supposed  to  have  its  origin  in  the  reference  con- 
tained in  Esther  9 :  31. 

Manner  of  Observance. — ^The  fasting  on  all  these 
days,  with  the  exception  of  the  Fast  of  Ab,  begins 
with  daybreak  and  lasts  till  sunset.  During  this 
time,  partaking  of  food  or  drink  of  any  kind  is  for- 
bidden, but  other  physical  enjoyments,  as  bathing, 
etc.,  which  are  forbidden  on  the  Day  of  Atonement 
and  on  the  Fast  of  Ab,  are  permitted.  It  is  also  per- 
mitted to  follow  all  the  ordinary  occupations  of  life 
and  to  do  all  manner  of  work.  The  Rabbis  were 
very  lenient  in  prescribing  the  details  of  the  laws 
pertaining  to  these  fasts. 

The  morning  and  afternoon  services  in  the  syna- 
gogue are  marked  by  the  reading  from  the  Torah 
(Exodus  32:  11-14;  34:  1-10),  and  at  the  afternoon 
services  the  Haftarah  is  read  from  Isaiah  55:6-56:8. 
In  the  morning  services  additional  penitential 
prayers  are  chanted. 

The  Ninth  of  Ab.— The  ninth  day  of  Ab  (Tish'ah 
b'Ab)  commemorates  the  final  stage  in  the  over- 
throw of  Jewish  independence  at  the  hands  of  the 
Babylonians.  According  to  tradition,  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  second  Temple  by  the  Romans  in  the 
year  70  C.  E.  also  occurred  on  this  day.  It  is  there- 
fore o1)served  with  more  solemnity  than  any  of  the 
other  fast  days,  marking,   as  it  does,  the  twofold 

116 


The  Minor  Festivals 


disaster  that  befell  the  Jewish  people.  During  all 
the  eighteen  centuries  that  have  elapsed  since  that 
memorable  day,  the  Jews  have  not  ceased  mourn- 
ing for  *'the  glory  that  has  departed  from  them,"  in 
the  destruction  of  their  central  government  and  cen- 
tral place  of  worship.  Even  in  places  where  they 
were  accorded  freedom  and  equality,  the  memory 
of  the  great  calamity  that  had  befallen  their  ances- 
tors on  this  day  always  brought  sad  reflections  and 
mournful  thoughts.  Even  those  Jews  who  believe 
that  it  is  not  desirable  for  Israel  to  go  back  to  Pal- 
estine, should  such  return  ever  be  feasible,  cannot 
but  be  moved  to  sad  reflections  on  the  anniversary 
of  the  horrible  events  that  happened  to  their  an- 
cestors. Those  who  suffered  during  those  days — 
and  their  suffering  must  have  been  very  great — were 
our  ancestors,  our  fathers  and  mothers.  Therefore, 
we  cannot  remain  untouched  when  these  sufferings 
are  recalled  and  recounted. 

Observant  Jews  begin  the  period  of  mourning 
with  the  Fast  of  Tammuz.  During  these  three 
weeks  they  abstain  from  all  festivities  and  joyous 
celebrations.  During  this  period  no  marriage  cere- 
mony is  performed  and  no  new  garment  is  put  on 
for  the  first  time.  Beginning  with  the  New  Moon 
of  Ab  and  extending  until  the  Fast  of  Ab  (excepting 
the  Sabbath  day),  no  meat  or  wine  is  partaken  of. 
Some  do  not  eat  meat  or  drink  wine  during  all  the 
three  weeks  intervening  between  the  Fast  of  Tam- 
muz and  the  Fast  of  Ab.  The  Sabbath  preceding 
the  Ninth  of  Ab  is  called  Sabbath  Hazon,  after  the 
initial  word  of  the  Haftarah  for  the  day  (Isaiah  1), 
which  is  chanted  in  a  peculiarly  mournful  melody. 

The  fast  itself,  unlike  the  other  minor  fasts,  be- 
gins with  sunset  of  the  eighth  and  extends  to  night- 
fall of  the  ninth.    The  same  rigor  is  maintained  re- 

117 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

garding  this  fast  as  in  the  case  of  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment. In  the  synagogue  all  decorations  are  re- 
moved, even  the  curtain  in  front  of  the  ark  is  taken 
away.  The  worshippers  sit  on  low  benches,  in 
stockinged  feet,  and  by  dim  candle  light,  in  mourn- 
ful melody,  chant  the  Book  of  Lamentations  and  a 
number  of  elegies  (Kinot).  The  same  course  is 
followed  at  the  morning  service,  which  is  recited 
without  Tallit  or  Tefillin,  although  these  are  worn 
during  the  afternoon  service.  Pious  Jews  abstain 
from  any  unnecessary  kind  of  labor  and  spend  the 
day  in  reading  stories  of  the  destruction  as  given 
in  Jeremiah  and  the  Book  of  Lamentations  and  in 
the  later  Rabbinic  literature.  (See  Kohler,  "Guide 
for  Instruction  in  Judaism,"  pp.  125-127,  where  the 
attitude  of  the  Reform  Jews  toward  these  Fast 
Days,  especially  the  Fast  of  Ab,  is  given ;  compare 
Joseph,  '']\xd2i\sm.  as  Creed  and  Life,"  pp.  209-210; 
Friedlander,  "The  Jewish  Religion,"  pp.  412-413 ; 
Rosenau,  "Jewish  Ceremonial  Institution  and  Cus- 
toms," pp.  88-90;  Abrahams,  "Festival  Studies," 
Chapter  XL) 

In  commemoration  of  the  deliverance  of  the  first- 
born of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt,  when  the  first-born 
of  the  Egyptians  were  slain,  the  custom  arose  for  all 
male  first-born  to  observe  the  day  preceding  the 
Passover  festival  as  a  Fast  day. 

Some  Jews  observe  as  a  Fast  day  the  day  pre- 
ceding the  New  Moon  (Yom  Kippur  Katan).  As  an 
atonement  for  any  sins  that  might  have  been  com- 
mitted in  the  hilarity  that  accompanied  the  observ- 
ance of  the  festivals,  some  fast  on  the  first  Monday, 
Thursday  and  the  following  Monday  in  the  month 
following  the  festivals  of  Passover  and  Sukkot 
(Sheni,  Hamishi  and  Sheni,  comp.  Job  1:5).  Some 
fast  also  during  the  days  when  Selihot  (penitential 

118 


The  Minor  Festivals 


prayers)  are  recited,  beginning  with  the  Sunday  pre- 
ceding the  New  Year.  Various  other  fasts  are  ob- 
served by  some  for  different  reasons,  but  all  these 
are  voluntary  and  have  never  been  universally  ac- 
cepted. The  Rabbis  are  opposed  to  self-imposed 
fasting,  considering  the  one  who  for  no  good  reason 
denies  himself  the  pleasures  of  the  world,  as  a  sin- 
ner, who  needs  atonement. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  a  brief  account  of  the  historic  events 
that  led  to  the  Maccabean  wars,  beginning  with  the 
Babylonian  exile. 

2.  Explain  the  term  "Hellenism*'  as  used  in  those 
days,  and  show  how  this  mode  of  culture  clashed 
with  the  teachings  of  Judaism. 

3.  Who  were  the  Hasidim?  What  is  the  tra- 
ditional meaning  of  the  term  Maccabee? 

4.  What  is  the  distinctive  manner  of  observance 
of  the  Festival  of  Hanukkah?  Give  the  reason  for 
this. 

5.  Give  a  resume  of  the  Hallel  and  show  the 
appropriateness  of  reading  these  psalms  on  Hanuk- 
kah. 

6.  What  is  the  appeal  that  Hanukkah  makes  to 
us  at  the  present  time?  What  should  be  the  point 
of  emphasis  in  presenting  the  lesson? 

7.  Indicate  by  means  of  headings  (complete  sen- 
tences) how  you  would  present  the  lessons  on  Purim 
to  a  class  of  children  of  the  age  of  12  and  13. 

8.  How  is  Purim  observed?  How  was  the  festi- 
val regarded  by  the  Jews  in  the  Middle  Ages? 

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Methods  of  Teaching  tlie  Jewish  Religion 

9.  Mention,  giving  reasons,  the  other  memorable 
dates  in  the  Jewish  calendar. 

10.  Name  Fast  days  centering  around  the  de- 
struction of  the  Jewish  State. 

11.  Why  is  the  Fast  of  Esther  observed? 

12.  What  deprivations  do  Jews  observing  the 
seventeenth  of  Tammuz  and  the  ninth  of  Ab  impose 
upon  themselves  in  the  period  between  these  two 
days? 

13.  When  is  the  Fast  of  the  first-born  observed, 
and  why? 


120 


IX.  THE  SYNAGOGUE  AND  THE  SCHOOL 

Origin  and  Purpose. — The  description  of  the 
building  of  the  Tabernacle  in  the  wilderness  (Exo- 
dus 35-40)  follows  closely  upon  the  incident  of  the 
Golden  Calf  (Exodus  32).  This  juxtaposition  has 
been  interpreted  to  indicate  the  necessity  of  the  one 
as  a  safeguard  against  the  repetition  of  an  offense 
like  that  of  the  Golden  Calf.  The  sublime  and  ex- 
alted teachings  of  Moses  regarding  a  spiritual  God 
and  a  moral  law  were  forgotten  as  soon  as  the  domi- 
nating personality  of  the  great  leader  was  removed. 
The  Israelites  clamored  for  a  visible  god  or  for  a 
concrete  manifestation  of  the  deity,  of  whose  nature 
and  attributes  they  could  have  but  a  dim  compre- 
hension. Moses  was  grieved,  disappointed,  indig- 
nant on  beholding  this  perverted  desire  and  exe- 
cuted summary  punishment  on  those  guilty  of  the 
offense.  The  incident  itself,  however,  made  him  re- 
alize that  men  and  women,  made  up  of  body  and 
spirit,  can  be  trained  in  spiritual  matters  only 
through  material  representations.  Hence,  he  ordered 
the  building  of  a  Tabernacle,  a  portable  tent,  the 
symbol  of  God's  continual  presence  in  the  midst  of 
the  people.  ''And  let  them  make  Me  a  sanctuary, 
that  I  may  dwell  among  them"  (Exodus  25  :8). 

This  interpretation,  though  homiletical,  contains 
a  great  psychological  truth,  which  Avas  followed  by 
religious  leaders  of  all  ages.  Abstract  ideas  and 
spiritual  truths,  in  order  to  be  adopted  by  the  great 
masses  of  the  people  and  to  remain  their  permanent 
possession,  must  assume  material  form  and  be  em- 

121 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jeiuish  Religion 

bodied  in  concrete  objects  and  ceremonies.  The 
Tabernacle  in  the  wilderness  and  the  Temple  in 
Jerusalem,  with  their  elaborate  sacrificial  service 
and  ritual,  proved  most  necessary  and  most  potent 
aids  in  the  preservation  of  the  great  ideals  of  the 
Jewish  religion.  It  is  true,  that  at  times  the  people 
forgot  the  purpose  of  these  institutions  and  regarded 
them  as  an  end  in  themselves,  because  the  people 
did  not  realize  that  these  institutions  Avere  merely 
the  guide  posts  leading  to  the  higher  idea  and  to 
the  spiritual  truth.  But  the  leaders  of  every  gener- 
ation, the  men  of  might  and  spirit,  the  inspired 
prophets  and  the  pious  Rabbis,  kept  reminding  the 
people  constantly  of  the  great  ideas  behind  these  in- 
stitutions. This  they  could  not  have  done,  had  the 
institutions  not  existed. 

The  purpose  of  the  sanctuary,  therefore,  always 
was  to  emphasize  the  nearness  of  God  to  the  com- 
munity of  Israel — the  close  proximity  of  the  divine 
to  human  affairs.  It  alvv^ays  served  as  the  symbol  of 
the  idea  that  God  is  ever  near  to  man  (cf.  Psalms 
145:18),  that  God  is  ever  ready  to  listen  to  his 
prayers,  to  extend  help  and  support  to  all  who  seek 
Him  in  truth,  to  offer  consolation  and  solace  to  the 
weary  and  the  distressed,  and  inspire  with  faith  and 
hope  the  doubting  and  perplexed.  (For  the  value 
of  Public  Worship,  see  the  following  Chapter.) 

Origin  of  Synagogue. — The  Tabernacle  in  the 
wilderness  and  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem  were  pri- 
marily communal  institutions,  in  which  the  individ- 
ual was  of  minor  consideration.  The  daily  sacri- 
fices were  offered  on  behalf  of  the  whole  community 
of  Israel,  and  even  the  offerings  brought  by  indi- 
viduals had  to  be  sacrificed  by  the  priest,  "the 
messenger  of  the  community."     Only  in  very  few 

122 


The  Synagogue  and  the  School 


instances  was  the  individual  invited  to  take  part 
in  the  service. 

Alongside  of  this  communal  worship,  private  de- 
votion must  have  existed  from  earliest  times,  al- 
though it  is  but  rarely  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The 
desire  to  give  vent  to  the  feelings  of  gratitude  to 
God  or  of  reverence  for  Him,  is  part  of  human  na- 
ture and  must  have  found  its  expression,  throughout 
the  early  history  of  Israel,  in  some  form  or  other. 
This  desire  must  have  received  additional  stimulus 
with  the  growth  of  the  religious  sentiment  and  with 
the  development  of  the  national  literature  at  the 
hands  of  prophet  and  poet.  With  the  destruction 
of  the  Temple  by  the  Babylonians  and  the  exile  of 
the  Jews  from  their  land,  the  feeling  of  personal 
responsibility  was  strengthened  and  sought  expres- 
sion in  acts  of  religious  devotion,  independent  of 
Temple  and  sacrifice.  Thus  we  find,  already  during 
the  Babylonian  exile,  mention  of  informal  meetings 
held  for  the  purpose  of  reading  and  studying  the 
Torah  and  the  words  of  the  prophets.  With  the  re- 
turn to  Palestine  under  Ezra,  the  synagogue  (liter- 
ally Assembly)  became  a  permanent  institution  and 
existed  everywhere  in  Palestine,  and  later  also  in 
other  places  where  Jews  lived.  It  was  the  place 
where  the  individual  Jew  gave  vent  to  his  religious 
emotions  in  worship  or  study.  In  Jerusalem,  the 
synagogue  existed  side  by  side  with  the  Temple  and 
its  elaborate  system  of  sacrifices.  Indeed,  there  was 
a  synagogue  even  on  the  Temple  mount. 

Throughout  the  period  of  the  second  Common- 
wealth the  synagogue  grew  in  importance  and  in  the 
affection  of  the  people,  so  that  the  shock  to  the  re- 
ligious life  of  the  nation,  at  the  destruction  of  the 
second  Temple,  was  considerably  tempered  by  the 
fact  that  the  substitute  was  at  hand,  which  little  by 

123 


Methods  of  Tcaclung   iJie  Jcicis/i  RcUyion 


little  took  the  place  of  the  Temple  in  the  hearts  of 
the  people.  Gradually  a  set  system  of  prayers  was 
evolved  and  adopted,  which  followed  the  lines  of  the 
system  of  sacrifices  in  the  Temple,  and  afiforded 
every  individual  the  opportunity  to  come  in  close 
communion  with  his  God.  There  were  many  causes 
during  the  second  Commonwealth  that  helped  in 
the  development  of  the  synagogue,  not  the  least 
among  these  being  the  decline  of  the  priestly  power 
and  prestige,  through  the  misdeeds  of  some  of  the 
priestly  families.  The  Pharisees,  the  representa- 
tives of  the  people  and  the  champions  of  their  rights, 
naturally  clung  to  the  synagogue  and  gave  it  the 
peculiar  form  and  functions  that  it  preserved 
throughout  all  these  centuries.  While  never  an- 
tagonistic to  the  Temple,  the  synagogue  helped  to 
emphasize  the  democratic  spirit  of  the  Jewish  re- 
ligion and  to  arouse  the  feelings  of  personal  respon- 
sibility in  the  hearts  of  the  individual  Jew. 

Synagogue  and  School. — The  earliest  references  to 
the  synagogue  identify  it  with  the  house  of  study, 
although  in  later  times  distinction  is  made  between 
the  Bet  ha-Keneset  (House  of  Assembly,  Syna- 
gogue), and  the  Bet  ha-Midrash  (House  of  Study). 
Indeed,  even  the  elementary  school  for  children  is 
supposed  to  have  had  its  origin  in  the  synagogue. 
The  growth  of  the  synagogue  was,  no  doubt,  a  most 
potent  incentive  to  education.  The  religious  inde- 
pendence of  the  individual,  which  found  its  expres- 
sion in  the  democratic  synagogue,  made  it  necessary 
for  the  individual  to  become  familiar  with  the 
sources  of  his  religion.  One  cannot  exercise  his  re- 
sponsibilities, unless  one  knows  what  they  are  and 
how  to  fulfill  them.  Hence  the  popularization  of 
Jewish  learning  became  a  necessary  corollary  to  the 

124 


The  Synagogue  and  the  School 


idea  of  the  democratization  of  Jewish  worship.  To 
this  end,  the  labors  of  Ezra  and  his  associates  (the 
Scribes)  contributed  the  largest  share.  By  tran- 
scribing the  Law  and  making  copies  of  it  accessible 
to  the  masses,  the  Scribes  took  the  Law  from  the 
hitherto  undisputed  keeping  of  the  priests  and  made 
it  the  possession  of  all  the  people.  The  synagogue 
and  the  school  were  thus  the  product  of  a  similar 
tendency  and  grew  up  side  by  side.  Popular  edu- 
cation was  widespread  at  the  time  of  the  destruction 
of  the  second  Temple,  so  that  it  is  related  that 
"there  were  four  hundred  and  eighty  synagogues  in 
Jerusalem,  each  having  attached  to  it  a  Bet  Sefer 
(elementary  school),  and  a  Bet  Talmud  (high 
school),  all  of  which  Vespasian  destroyed." 

After  the  downfall  of  Jerusalem  at  the  hands  of 
the  Romans  when  the  synagogues  became  supreme 
in  the  religious  life  of  the  Jew,  the  school  also  in- 
creased in  importance.  Learning  became  the  pas- 
sion of  the  Jew.  No  other  aristocracy  but  that  of 
learning  was,  throughout  the  Diaspora,  recognized 
in  Jewry.  The  Am  ha-Aretz,  the  ignorant  man,  was 
distrusted,  looked  down  upon,  while  the  Talmid 
Hacham,  the  student  of  the  Law,  was  accorded 
many  privileges.  The  result  was  that,  even  during 
the  darkest  periods  of  the  dark  ages,  there  were 
hardly  any  illiterates  among  the  Jews.  Wherever 
Jews  settled,  their  first  concern  was  to  establish  a 
house  for  communal  prayer  and  to  procure  a  teacher 
for  their  children.  The  highest  ambition  of  a  parent, 
for  which  he  was  willing  to  make  the  greatest  sacri- 
fices, was  to  see  his  child  become  a  great  scholar. 
The  school  has  thus  ever  been  an  integral  part  of 
Jewish  life  and  an  essential  feature  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  Jewish  community,  so  that  the  Rabbis  de- 
clared that  a  "city  which  does  not  provide  for  the 

125 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

elementary  education  of  its  children  ought  to  be  de- 
stroyed." 

The  synagogue  and  the  school,  from  their  very 
inception,  were  closely  connected,  so  that  the  func- 
tions of  the  two  were  frequently  interchanged — the 
Bet  ha-Midrash  serving  also  as  a  house  of  prayer, 
while  the  Bet  ha-Keneset  was  frequently  used  to  ex- 
pound and  explain  the  word  of  God.  Worship  and 
study  were  ever  regarded  by  Jews  of  equal  sanctity 
and  of  equal  religious  importance.  Indeed,  our  rit- 
ual has  many  elements  of  study  in  it,  while  study 
was  always  looked  upon  as  a  religious  act — a  part 
of  religious  devotion.  So  much  have  these  two  been 
identified  as  to  cause  the  promulgation  of  the  Rab- 
binic principle  that  **the  ignoramus  cannot  be  a  pious 
rnan."  The  ignoramus  was  regarded  incapable  of 
living  a  truly  moral  life.  Judaism  demands  intelli- 
gent service  and  intelligent  service  comes  only 
through  study  and  investigation.  (See  Simon  and 
Rosenau,  "Jewish  Education,"  Historical  Survey, 
The  Biblical  Era,  27-30.) 

The  Synagogue  as  a  Social  Centre. — Besides  be- 
iijg  the  spiritual  and  intellectual  centre  of  the  Jews, 
the  synagogue,  and  more  especially  the  Bet  ha- 
Midrash  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  also  the  social 
centre  of  the  Jewish  community.  This  is  not  at  all 
strange  in  a  community  in  which  religion  is  re- 
garded as  identical  with  life,  as  was  the  case  among 
the  Jews.  Excluded  from  the  poHtical  and  social 
life  of  the  people  in  whose  midst  they  lived,  the  me- 
dieval Jews  found  in  the  synagogue  all  the  interests 
for  which  their  hearts  were  craving.  The  synagogue 
absorbed  within  its  walls  all  the  activities  of  com- 
munal and  social  life,  and  thereby  helped  to  hallow 
all  the  details  of  life.     Its  doors  were  always  open, 

126 


The  Synagogue  and  iJie  Sehool 


the  people  were  always  engaged  there  in  worship, 
study  or  friendly  dispute.  There  charity  was  col- 
lected and  distributed.  There  the  stranger  found  a 
hearty  welcome,  and  his  needs  were  attended  to. 
There  the  oppressed  or  wronged  found  a  hearing, 
and,  when  possible,  also  redress. 

Even  before  the  Ghetto  became  a  legalized  insti- 
tution in  Europe,  the  synagogue  was  the  centre 
around  which  the  Jewish  quarter  grew  up  in  most 
communities.  This  close  relationship  among  the 
Jews  made  them  feel  as  if  they  all  belonged  to  one 
family,  sharing  in  each  other's  joys  and  sorrows.  In 
the  synagogue,  this  feeling  found  expression  in  the 
festivities  accompanying  the  first  visit  of  the  bride- 
groom after  his  wedding,  in  which  all  worshippers 
participated.  Other  private  joys  were  shared  by  the 
community  in  the  synagogue,  as  the  celebration  of 
circumcision,  of  Bar-Mizwah,  and  other  similar 
events  in  the  family  life.  Private  sorrows  also  were 
shared  by  all  the  members  of  the  community.^  The 
mourner  was  visited  in  his  home  by  all  his  friends, 
and,  on  coming  to  synagogue  on  Sabbath,  he  was  ac- 
corded the  sympathy  of  the  community  as  a  body. 
In  the  synagogue,  the  Jew  thus  found  himself  sur- 
rounded by  friends  and  well-wishers.  There  he  felt 
himself  at  home,  even  though  cast  out  from  the 
society  of  the  people  surrounding  him.  There  all 
his  wants  received  kindly  consideration.  No  won- 
der, therefore,  that  the  institution  of  the^  synagogue 
was  so  highly  cherished  and  regarded  with  such  af- 
fection by  the  Jews  of  all  ages.  (See  Abrahams, 
"Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  ch.  I,  II.) 

The  Synagogue  and  Its  Utensils. — While  the  ar- 
chitecture and  internal  decorations  and  arrange- 
ments of  the  synagogue  differed  greatly  in  various 

127 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

lands  and  times,  certain  elements  which  have  met 
with  general  acceptance  are  distinctive  of  the  physi- 
cal side  of  the  synagogue. 

The  ark  (Aron,  or  Aron  ha-Kodesh — holy  ark)  is 
the  most  prominent  feature  in  all  synagogues.  It  is 
usually  built  in  the  middle  of  the  eastern  wall,  and 
is  supposed  to  symbolize  the  Holy  of  Holies  in  the 
Tabernacle  ^and  the  Temple.  The  worshippers  face 
the  east,  thus  directing  their  gaze  toward  Jerusalem, 
the  place  of  the  Temple  mount  (comp.  I  Kings  8: 
48).  Jews  living  east  of  Jerusalem  turn  westward, 
and  in  such  places  the  ark  is  built  in  the  western 
wall  of  the  synagogue.  The  ark  contains  copies  of 
the  scroll  of  the  Law  (Sefer  Torah).  Not  a  few  con- 
gregations boast  of  a  large  collection  of  such  copies, 
some  of  which  date  from  ancient  time.  The  ark  is 
covered  with  a  curtain  (Parochet),  made  of  satin  or 
plush,  and  having  some  artistic  designs  embroidered 
on  it  in  gold. 

The  scrolls  of  the  law  deposited  in  the  ark  contain 
the  five  books  of  Moses,  written  on  parchment  (made 
of  the  skin  of  a  "clean"  animal)  by  an  expert  and 
pious  scribe.  The  skins  are  sewed  together  with 
thread  made  of  sinews  of  "clean"  animals,  and  then 
rolled  around  two  rollers.  The  scroll  is  then  made 
secure  by  a  band  tied  around  it.  This  band  or 
wrapper,  made  of  silk  or  linen,  is  often  the  donation 
of  a  male  child  when  he  first  visits  the  synagogue. 
The  scroll  is  then  covered  with  a  mantle  or  robe, 
usually  made  of  plush  or  velvet,  and  richly  em- 
broidered in  gold.  Over  the  upper  rollers  (Etz 
Hayyim)  are  usually  placed  silver  bells,  artistically 
worked,  and  over  the  robe  a  breast-plate  and  a 
pointer  are  suspended  by  chains.  These  silver 
pieces  are  frequently  designated  as  "holy  vessels" 
(KeleKodesh). 

128 


The  Synagogue  and  the  School 


Immediately  in  front  of  the  ark  is  suspended  the 
Perpetual  Light  (Ner  Tamid),  symbolizing  the 
golden  candlestick  in  the  sanctuary  (Exodus  27  :  21). 
This  is  made  of  gold,  silver,  or  brass,  and  is  kept 
continually  lighted.  Its  introduction  in  the  syna- 
gogue is  of  comparatively  recent  date,  and  its  prox- 
imity to  the  ark  has  been  interpreted  as  emblematic 
of  the  conviction  that  the  Law  of  Israel  will  always 
be  the  light  and  guiding  star  to  humanity  through- 
out all  generations. 

In  many  synagogues,  a  raised  platform  (Bemah, 
Almemar)  is  erected  in  the  middle  of  the  building, 
from  which  the  lessons  from  the  Torah  and  the 
Prophets  are  read,  and  from  which  the  Rabbi  or 
preacher  delivers  his  discourses.  Custom  differs 
widely  as  to  the  place  occupied  by  the  precentor 
(Sheliah  Zibbur,  Hazzan)  who  leads  the  congrega- 
tion in  prayer.  In  some  synagogues,  the  reader  is 
stationed  near  a  small  stand  below  the  platform  of 
the  ark,  in  accordance  with  the  literal  meaning  of 
the  words  of  the  Psalmist,  "Out  of  the  depths  have 
I  called  Thee,  O  Lord!"  (Psalm  130:1).  In  others, 
the  reader  chants  the  prayers  from  the  Bemah,  in 
the  middle  of  the  synagogue.  In  some  modern 
synagogues,  the  Bemah  is  pushed  forward  near  the 
ark,  one  platform  serving  both  purposes.  The 
Bemah  has  only  a  reading  desk,  usually  covered 
with  a  richly  embroidered  satin  or  plush  cover,  and 
a  bench. 

In  most  synagogues,  the  custom  still  prevails  of 
providing  a  separate  section  for  women.  Such 
provision  was  also  made  in  the  Temple  and  the 
precedent  has  been  followed  to  the  present  day.  In 
olden  times,  the  women  congregated  in  a  room  ad- 
joining the  synagogue,  and  communicating  with  it 
by  means  of  a  row  of  windows,  which  were  carefully 

129 


Methods  of  Tcacliiiuj  the  Jczcish  Religion 

curtained.  Thus,  the  women  could  follow  the  serv- 
ice without  being  seen  by  the  men.  In  more  mod- 
ern times,  instead  of  this  special  room,  there  are 
galleries  running  along  both  sides  of  the  synagogue, 
which  are  set  aside  for  the  women.  In  many  re- 
form synagogues,  no  special  provision  is  made  for 
women,  men  and  women  sitting  together  in  the 
body  of  the  building  or  in  the  galleries. 

In  agreement  with  the  injunction  contained  in  the 
second  commandment,  the  interior  of  the  synagogue 
is  marked  by  the  greatest  simplicity.  There  are  no 
pictures,  statues  or  images  of  any  kind,  although 
the  walls  occasionally  have  inscriptions  of  Scriptural 
passages.  The  six-pointed  star  (Magen  David, 
Shield  of  David)  found  in  some  synagogues,  is 
probably  not  of  Jewish  origin  and  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  date. 

Unlike  the  Temple  service,  the  synagogue  serv- 
ice is  marked  by  the  absence  of  instrumental  music. 
The  reason  for  this  is,  because  of  the  Rabbinic  pro- 
hibition against  the  use  of  instrumental  music  on 
Sabbaths  and  holidays.  In  later  times,  this  absence 
of  instrumental  music  in  the  synagogue  was  inter- 
preted as  a  sign  of  mourning  for  the  destruction  of 
the  Temple.  In  reform  synagogues,  the  organ  has 
been  introduced,  and  in  many  of  them  is  used  also 
on  Sabbaths  and  Festivals. 

The  arrangement  and  construction  of  the  Bet  ha- 
Midrash  resemble  in  every  detail  those  of  the  syna- 
gogue, except  that  in  the  case  of  the  former  every- 
thing is  more  severely  plain  and  modest.  In  many 
modern  synagogues,  especially  in  this  land,  the 
lower  floor  of  the  synagogue  is  fitted  up  as  a  Bet  ha- 
Midrash,  where  prayers  are  read  on  week  days,  and 
where  people  assemble  for  study.  (Rosenau,  "J^^" 
ish  Ceremonial  Institutions  and  Customs,"  pp.  ll-33j 

130 


The  Synagogue  and  the  School 


Friedlander,   ''The   Jewish    ReHgion,"   pp.   423-429; 
Jewish  Encyclopedia,  s.  v.  Synagogue.) 

RESUME 

King  Solomon,  in  his  prayer  of  dedication,  after 
the  Temple  was  erected,  clearly  sets  forth  the  pur- 
pose of  the  sanctuary.  "Behold,  heaven  and  the 
heaven  of  heavens  cannot  contain  Thee ;  how  much 
less  this  house  that  I  have  builded !  "  (I  Kings  8: 
27).  God's  glory  fills  the  universe.  His  providence 
is  everywhere.  The  sanctuary  is  the  symbol  of  this 
great  idea  of  the  omnipresence  of  the  divine  in  hu- 
man affairs.  It  is  for  the  service  of  men  that  a  cer- 
tain place  is  set  aside,  devoted  especially  to  holy 
deeds  and  to  communion  with  God.  This  place  re- 
ceives its  additional  sanctity  from  the  very  usage 
to  which  it  is  put.  The  synagogue,  as  the  sanctuary 
of  old,  is  thus  merely  the  concrete  expression  of  the 
feeling  that  God  is  near  to  us  and  ready  to  listen  to 
our  prayers. 

The  synagogue  differed  from  the  temple  in  so  far 
as  it  gave  free  scope  to  the  layman,  to  every  indi- 
vidual Jew,  to  take  part  in  the  religious  service.  The 
essential  nature  of  the  Jewish  religion  received  its 
truest  and  noblest  expression  in  the  synagogue, 
where  the  responsibility  of  the  individual  received 
new  emphasis  and  was  given  room  for  development. 
The  democratic  spirit  of  the  Jewish  religion,  which 
permits  the  approach  of  the  humblest  individual  to 
the  divine,  was  given  the  fullest  scope  in  the  worship 
of  the  synagogue. 

The  popularization  of  religious  learning  became 
a  necessary  consequence  of  the  popularization  of 
the  religious  service.  "Know  thou  the  God  of  thy 
father  and  serve  Him"  (I  Chronicles  28:9)  was  the 

131 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


advice  given  by  David  to  his  son  Solomon,  and  this 
fatcr  became  the  standard  of  Jewish  hfe.  In  order 
o  serve  God  intelligently,  it  is  necessary  that  we 
acauTrlsOTne  knowledge  of  His  nature  and  of  what 
Herman's  of  us.  This  attitude  to  study  as  an  im- 
portant element  in  religious  service  g^^  fe  Jews 
the  proud  appellation  of  the  "People  of  theBook 
"To  study  and  to  teach,  to  keep  and  to  do,  this  is 
the  ideal  of  Jewish  religious  life.  Hence,  the  close 
relationsh^  Ihich  has  always  existed  between  the 

^ThTfynrgtue^wfs°not  only  a  house  of  prayer 
and  study.  It  was  also  the  social  centre  of  the 
Jewish  community.  When  religion  was  co-exten- 
ivTwith  We  the  house  devoted  to  religion  also  sup- 
plied all  the  needs  of  life,  social  as  well  as  religious. 
This  feature  is  still,  though  in  a  much  smaller  de- 
Iree  maintained  in  the  various  social  activities  of 
fhe  sodet"es  auxiliary  to  the  congregation,  which 
deserve  all  possible  commendation  and  encourage- 

"Thoueh   simple  in  design  and   architecture,  the 

tineu  shed     The  ark  with  its  scrolls  of  the  Law,  the 

tained,  thus  retaining  the  essential  character  ox 
synagogue. 


132 


The  Synagogue  and  the  Sehool 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  purpose  of  the  sanctuary. 

2.  Give  a  brief  description  of  the  origin  of  the 
synagogue. 

3.  Explain  the  terms  Bet  ha-Keneset  and  Bet 
ha-Midrash.  Show  the  relationship  between  these 
two  institutions  in  Jewish  history. 

4.  In  what  way  did  the  establishment  of  the  syn- 
agogue help  in  the  extension  of  Jewish  education? 

5.  Describe  the  use  of  the  synagogue  as  a  social 
centre.  What  value  did  this  have  in  the  past? 
Should  this  feature  be  maintained  in  the  modern 
synagogue  ? 

6.  Describe  the  various  features  common  to  all 
synagogues. 

7.  Give  a  detailed  description  of  the  scrolls  of 
the  Law — their  form,  preparation  and  use. 

8.  Give  the  reason  for  the  absence  of  pictures 
and  statues  in  the  synagogue ;  for  the  absence  of  in- 
strumental music  in  many  a  synagogue's  service. 


133 


X.     PUBLIC    WORSHIP 

Origin  and  Purpose. — The  importance  of  a  central 
place  of  worship  for  strengthening  the  national 
bonds  and  for  preserving  the  integrity  of  the  na- 
tional religion  was  recognized  early  in  the  develop- 
ment of  Judaism.  Frequent  references  are  made  in 
the  Bible  to  the  prohibition  against  bringing  sacri- 
fices in  any  other  place  but  that  appointed  by  God 
as  the  national  sanctuary.  "But  unto  the  place 
which  the  Lord  your  God  shall  choose  out  of  all 
your  tribes  to  put  His  name  there,  even  unto  His 
habitation  shall  ye  seek,  and  thither  thou  shalt 
come"  (Deuteronomy  12:5  ff. ;  14:23;  16:6,  7,  11,  15, 
et  al.).  While  for  a  long  time  this  was  not  strictly 
observed,  the  establishment  of  an  ecclesiastical  cen- 
tre in  Jerusalem  served  as  a  most  potent  aid  in  ce- 
menting the  union  of  the  tribes  and  in  gradually 
eradicating  the  idolatrous  practices  and  ideas  that 
lingered  among  the  people  of  Judea.  Jeroboam 
feared  the  influence  of  that  stronghold  of  national 
solidarity,  and  his  attempt  to  destroy  the  unity  of 
Israel  was  accompanied  by  the  erection  of  new  cen- 
tres of  worship  (I  Kings  12:26-33;  comp.  II  Chroni- 
cles 11:  13-16;  13:  4-12).  The  state  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  religious  ideas  of  the  people  was 
mirrored  in  the  Temple  service,  and  this  in  its  turn 
helped  to  preserve  the  religious  ideals  of  the  nation. 

With  the  development  of  the  synagogue,  com- 
munal worship  became  more  firmly  established, 
although  it  remained  for  a  long  time  in  a  fluid  state 
as  to  its  form.  The  need  for  holding  the  people 
together  and  strengthening  the  ties  that  united  them 
became  more  strongly  felt  after  the  destruction  of 

134 


Public   Worship 


the  Temple  and  the  loss  of  national  independence. 
The  wise  Rabbis  of  that  generation  provided  against 
national  rupture  by  making  prayer  a  sufficient  sub- 
stitute for  sacrifices  and  by  establishing  a  uniform 
mode  of  worship.  The  essential  elements  of  our 
present  prayer-book  had  their  origin  and  acquired 
their  present  form  in  the  period  immediately  follow- 
ing the  destruction  of  the  Temple  by  the  Romans 
(70  A.  C.  E.).  A  common  prayer-book  was  regarded 
as  the  strongest  safeguard  against  national  disinte- 
gration. Public  worship,  which  became  general 
wherever  Jews  settled,  helped  to  unite  the  Jews  of 
any  particular  community  with  the  Jews  of  all  other 
communities.  It  gave  expression  to  the  ideals,  the 
hopes  and  aspirations  of  the  Keneset  Israel  (the 
wdiole  community  of  Israel),  and  this  preserved  the 
solidarity  of  the  Jewish  people  and  the  integrity  of 
the  Jewish  religion. 

Its  Value  for  the  Individual. — Public  worship  has 
thus  greatly  helped  in  the  preservation  of  the  unity 
of  the  Jewish  people.  No  matter  how  different  from 
each  other  Jews  may  be  in  dress,  in  culture,  even  in 
personal  appearance,  they  feel  drawn  towards  each 
other  on  entering  a  synagogue,  the  place  devoted  to 
public  worship.  Not  only  does  public  worship  bring 
all  the  worshippers  of  a  certain  place  closely  to- 
gether, but  it  also  helps  to  unite  all  Israel  in  all  the 
lands  of  its  dispersion  and  to  cement  the  bond  of 
union  between  the  present  and  all  past  generations 
of  Israel.  Expressing  as  it  does  the  noblest  ideals 
of  the  Jewish  religion,  as  conceived  by  the  great 
leaders  and  teachers,  public  worship  was  also  a  most 
potent  influence  in  preserving  the  integrity  of  the 
religion  and  its  most  essential  elements. 

The  individual  who  abstains  from  public  worship, 
135 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jeivish  Religion 

who  visits  the  synagogue  only  on  certain  stated  oc- 
casions or  not  at  all,  misses  that  blessed  influence, 
even  though  he  be  careful  to  pray  at  home  at  regu- 
lar intervals.  In  truth,  he  misses  a  great  deal  more. 
Apart  from  the  fact  that  he  is  deprived  of  the  great 
aid  in  the  development  of  the  Jewish  consciousness 
which  public  worship  fosters,  he  misses  other  very 
important  aids  to  devotion  in  prayer.  Not  only  does 
worship  become  more  dignified  and  more  exalted 
when  joined  in  by  a  large  gathering  (comp.  the  Rab- 
binic interpretation  of  the  verse  in  Proverbs  14 :  28, 
"In  the  multitude  of  people  is  the  king's  glory,"  to 
refer  to  public  worship),  but  it  also  becomes  more 
devotional.  Enthusiasm  is  aroused.  Religious  fer- 
vor is  kindled  by  the  feeling  that  one  is  a  member 
of  a  large  community,  seeking  a  common  end  and 
intent  upon  one  purpose — the  communion  with  the 
God  of  Israel.  In  joining  in  public  worship,  the  in- 
dividual becomes  transported  by  the  consciousness 
of  companionship  with  a  large  multitude  which  is 
actuated  by  one  great  emotion. 

The  attendance  upon  synagogue  service  thus 
serves  as  an  expression  of  loyalty  to  the  religion  of 
Israel  and  to  the  God  of  Israel,  as  well  as  to  develop 
the  finer  religious  sensibilities  in  one's  heart.  The 
Jew  who  takes  part  in  the  public  worship  of  the  com- 
munity thereby  testifies  to  his  attachment  to  his 
people  and  to  his  God.  He  helps  in  the  preservation 
of  one  of  the  strongest  institutions  of  Judaism  and 
provides  a  spur  to  his  own  religious  emotions.  He 
openly  declares  his  affiliation  and  strengthens  it.  He 
manifests  his  loyalty  and  reinforces  it.  He  expresses 
his  emotions  and  stimulates  them. 

Need  of  Special  Emphasis. — The  teacher  should 
not   neglect   the   opportunity   to   impress   upon   his 

136 


Public   IV  or  ship 


class  the  importance  of  synagogue  attendance  and 
of  the  participation  in  pubHc  worship.  Synagogue 
attendance  demands  greater  empliasis  now  than 
ever  before.  With  the  fall  of  the  Ghetto  walls  and 
with  the  attainment  of  political  equality,  many  dis- 
tinct features  of  Jewish  life  have  become  obliterated. 
The  Jewish  atmosphere  is  wanting,  and  even  in  the 
Jewish  home  we  miss  the  numerous  characteristic 
signs  and  symbols  by  which  it  has  in  the  past  been 
distinguished.  The  only  place  which  still  maintains 
the  distinctive  Jewish  spirit  is  the  synagogue,  and 
the  only  institution  that  has,  to  a  large  extent,  with- 
stood the  onslaughts  of  modernity  and  secularism 
and  remained  in  its  essential  features  the  same  as  in 
former  years  is  the  Jewish  communal  w^orship.  It 
is  our  duty  to  guard  this  institution  most  carefully 
and  to  impress  its  importance  upon  the  minds  of  the 
growing  youth.  The  Jewish  child  should  be  urged 
to  make  of  synagogue  attendance  a  habit,  a  neces- 
sary part  of  his  life.  He  should  be  given  the  oppor- 
tunity to  join  in  the  services  and  thus  realize  his  im- 
portance in  the  community  of  Israel.  If  the  school 
provides  a  separate  service  for  children,  this  serv- 
ice should,  as  much  as  possible,  contain  the  same 
elements  as  are  found  in  the  regular  service.  At  the 
earliest  moment  the  child  should  be  brought  to 
synagogue  and  urged  to  join  in  its  service.  The  in- 
fluence of  communal  worship  in  emphasizing  de- 
votion to  the  Jewish  cause  and  attachment  to  the 
Jewish  religion  is  incalculable. 

The  Quorum  Required. — The  minimum  number 
required  by  traditional  law  to  constitute  public  wor- 
ship is  ten  male  adults  (Minyan-number).  If  there 
are  not  as  many  present,  the  regular  service  may 
still  be  read,  with  the  omission,  however,  of  certain 

137 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

portions  which  are  also  omitted  when  one  prays 
privately.  In  some  modern  reform  synagogues,  pub- 
lic worship  is  conducted  even  when  the  customary 
number  of  ten  worshippers  is  not  present. 

The  Language  of  Public  Worship. — Public  wor- 
ship being  primarily  the  religious  expression  of 
united  Israel,  the  language  employed  in  this  ex- 
pression was  naturally  the  language  common  to  all 
Israel.  Although  Hebrew  ceased  to  be  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Jews  long  before  the  prayer-book  as- 
sumed its  present  form,  the  framers  of  our  liturgy 
thought  it  wise  to  preserve  that  language  in  the  pub- 
lic worship,  since  it  is  the  language  of  all  the  great 
treasures  of  our  faith.  The  individual  may  and 
should  pray  in  the  language  which  he  understands 
best,  which  will  best  express  to  him  his  innermost 
desires  and  yearnings.  The  community,  however, 
should  pray  in  Hebrew,  the  national  language  of  all 
Israel. 

The  principle  underlying  this  practice  has  been 
recognized  by  Jews  of  all  times  and  of  all  shades  of 
thought.  While  at  different  times  prayers  in  the  ver- 
nacular have  been  introduced  in  public  worship,  the 
frame-work  of  the  service  in  the  synagogue  has 
always  been  rendered  in  the  original  Hebrew 
tongue.  Aside  from  the  great  devotional  value  that 
the  Hebrew  language  possesses,  it  is  and  will  always 
remain  the  language  common  to  all  Israel  and 
should,  therefore,  always  be  the  medium  of  expres- 
sion in  the  religious  service  of  all  Israel.  If  public 
worship  is  to  retain  its  origmal  purpose  and  serve 
the  end  of  uniting  the  people  of  Israel  and  preserv- 
ing the  religion  of  Israel,  it  can  be  accomplished 
best  through  the  medium  of  the  Hebrew  language, 
the  language  of  Israel.     The  argument  frequently 

138 


Public   Worship 


advanced  in  favor  of  supplanting  the  Hebrew  by  the 
vernacular  because  many  people  at  present  do  not 
understand  Hebrew  should  be  answered  as  it  was 
always  answered  by  Jews :  ''Go  and  learn."  It  is 
incumbent  upon  every  Israelite,  if  he  would  remain 
loyal  and  faithful  to  his  people  and  to  his  religion, 
to  learn  at  least  so  much  Hebrew  as  to  enable  him 
to  understand  and  follow  the  communal  service. 
Complete  substitution  of  the  vernacular  for  Hebrew 
in  public  worship  will  lead  to  the  defeat  of  the  very 
purpose  of  Jewish  public  worship  and  will  weaken 
that  Jewish  consciousness  which  public  worship  is 
intended  to  arouse  and  foster.  (See  Berkowitz, 
"The  New  Education  in  Religion,"  pp.  69,  86,  104.) 
In  many  modern  congregations,  especially  such  as 
do  not  adhere  strictly  to  all  the  traditions  and  obser- 
vances of  Judaism,  a  number  of  prayers  are  recited 
in  the  vernacular.  But  even  in  these  the  Hebrew 
language  is  retained  in  the  most  essential  parts  of 
the  service.  Whatever  concessions  may  be  made  to 
the  exigencies  of  the  time,  it  is  still  recognized  that 
the  more  Hebrew  the  service  contains  the  more 
Jewish  it  is  and  the  more  pow^erful  its  appeal  to  the 
conscience  of  united  Israel.  The  Hebrew  language 
is  one  of  the  strongest  Hnks  that  unite  us  with  our 
glorious  past  and  with  all  Israel  of  the  present,  and 
it  should  be  regarded  a  matter  of  national  pride  for 
every  Jew  to  understand  the  Hebrew  language  and 
use  it  at  the  moment  when  he  most  closely  identifies 
himself  wath  the  past  of  his  people  and  with  all  his 
brethren  in  all  the  lands  of  their  dispersion. 

The  Attitude  During  Prayer. — Just  as  discipline 
and  good  behavior  are  essential  in  public  instruction, 
so  are  decorum  and  dignity  primary  requirements 
of  public  worship.     Unbecoming  conduct,   conver- 

139 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

sation  and  restlessness  during  the  time  of  prayer 
must  not  be  tolerated.  Still,  we  should  not  permit 
decorum  to  degenerate  into  a  stiffness  that  chills 
the  heart  and  stifles  natural  emotions  and  impulses. 
The  hearty  response,  even  though  it  be  at  times  dis- 
cordant and  injurious  to  musical  harmony,  should 
be  encouraged.  J\  service  is  only,  then,  truly  public 
when  the  public  is  offering  it,  and  not  when  the 
Reader  chants  it  and  the  congregation  decorously 
listens  in  silence.  Congregational  singing  and  con- 
gregational praying,  conducted  with  dignity  and 
harmony,  give  life  and  interest  to  the  service  and 
arouse  the  finer  emotions  of  individual  responsi- 
bility. 

Prayers  are  recited  either  sitting  or  standing. 
Kneeling  is  not  permitted,  except  at  certain  mo- 
ments during  the  Musaf  (additional)  service  of  the 
New  Year  and  of  the  Day  of  Atonement.  The  pro- 
hibition against  kneeling  is  probably  of  a  later  date 
and  may  have  had  as  its  reason  the  desire  to  differ- 
entiate Jewish  from  Christian  worship,  after  the 
latter  had  adopted  kneeling  as  the  rule  in  worship. 
The  'Amidah  (standing)  or  Shemoneh  Esreh  (Eigh- 
teen, see  next  chapter)  is,  as  a  rule,  recited  while 
standing.  Custom  varies  with  regard  to  the  posture 
to  be  assumed  during  the  reading  of  the  other  parts 
of  the  service. 

To  keep  the  head  covered  during  service  is  an 
ancient  Jewish  custom.  In  the  Orient,  the  covering 
of  the  head  is  a  sign  of  respect,  and  it  has,  therefore, 
been  customary  among  Jews  not  only  to  pray  with 
covered  head,  but  also  to  cover  the  head  in  the  per- 
formance of  any  religious  act  or  study.  This  custom 
has  survived  even  the  adoption  by  Jews  of  European 
habits  in  dress  and  general  conduct.  In  many  syna- 
gogues even  where  other  traditional  customs  have 

140 


Public   Worship 


been  abolished,  worshippers  still  keep  their  heads 
covered.  It  has  always  been  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous features  of  a  Jewish  service  (comp.  I  Co- 
rinthians 2:4,  7),  and  it  is  only  in  the  most  recent 
times  that  in  some  synagogues  the  custom  has  been 
discarded  and  public  service  is  conducted  with  un- 
covered head  (Rosenau,  "J^^^^h  Ceremonial  Insti- 
tutions and  Customs,"  pp.  48-50;  Jewish  Encyclo- 
pedia, s.  V.  Barehcadedness). 

Personal  cleanliness  is  a  necessary  requirement 
for  worship.  One  should  not  begin  to  pray  before 
he  has  washed  his  hands.  In  some  synagogues,  a 
laver  and  towels  are  provided  in  the  ante-room  for 
the  worshippers  to  wash  their  hands  before  the 
service. 

It  is  regarded  a  meritorious  act  to  walk  rapidly 
to  synagogue  and  to  endeavor  to  be  there  before  the 
time  set  for  the  service.  It  is  also  recommended  that 
one  should  have  a  permanent  seat  in  the  synagogue, 
which  one  should  always  occupy  during  prayer.  As 
a  special  sign  of  mourning,  the  mourner  in  many  an 
orthodox  synagogue  does  not  occupy  his  usual  seat 
during  the  year  of  mourning  for  a  parent. 

Periods  of  Public  Worship. — Three  set  services 
have  been  fixed  for  every  day.  These  are  Shaharit 
(Morning  service),  and  Minhah  (Afternoon  ser- 
vice), probably  to  correspond  to  the  daily  sacrifices 
ofifered  in  the  Temple,  and  'Arbit  or  Ma'arib  (Even- 
ing service).  On  Sabbaths,  Festivals,  and  New 
Moons,  an  additional  service  (Musaf)  is  held,  usu- 
ally soon  after  the  morning  service,  corresponding 
to  the  additional  sacrifice  that  was  offered  in  the 
Temple  on  these  days.  On  the  Day  of  Atonement, 
another  service,  Ne'ilah  (Closing)  is  rendered  at  the 
end  of  the  day's  service. 

141 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

The  antiquity  of  the  custom  of  praying  thrice 
daily  is  seen  from  the  references  to  that  custom  in 
Psalms  55:  18  and  Daniel  6:  11.  There  are  certain 
elements  common  to  all  these  services,  notably  the 
Amidah  or  Shemoneh  'Esreh.  If  one  is  unable  to 
attend  synagogue  and  join  with  the  public  in  all 
these  services,  one  may  recite  them  privately  at 
home.  The  main  distinction  between  such  private 
prayer  and  the  public  service  is  that  in  the  former 
case  the  following  elements  are  omitted:  Borchu, 
the  recitation  of  the  Kaddish,  the  repetition  of  the 
Amidah  and  the  reading  of  the  portion  from  the 
scroll  of  the  Law.  It  is  permitted,  however,  to  con- 
duct public  service  outside  of  the  synagogue,  with 
all  these  elements  included,  especially  when  one  is 
unable  to  leave  his  house,  as  in  the  case  of  a  mourner 
during  the  first  seven  days  (Shib'ah)  of  mourning; 
the  only  requisite,  under  the  circumstances,  being 
that  ten  adult  males  (Minyan)  be  present. 

RESUME 

Public  worship  has  been  one  of  the  most  potent 
influences  in  the  preservation  of  Judaism.  It  has 
been  instrumental  in  preserving  the  brotherhood  of 
the  Jewish  people  and  in  maintaining  the  purity  of 
the  Jewish  religion.  By  attending  the  synagogue 
and  joining  in  its  service  the  Jew  proclaims  his  at- 
tachment to  Judaism  and  his  loyalty  to  his  people. 
It  is  also  a  powerful  incentive  towards  arousing  re- 
ligious emotion  and  devoutness  in  prayer.  No  one 
can  resist  the  influence  of  a  large  community  united 
in  prayer  to  God. 

Synagogue  attendance  should  be  enjoined  by  the 
teacher  upon  his  class.  Children  should  be  trained 
to  make  a  habit  of  attendance   at  divine   service. 

142 


Public  Worship 


With  the  secularization  of  Jewish  life,  the  attend- 
ance at  synagogue  should  be  given  constant  impetus 
and  emphasis. 

Hebrew  has  always  been  the  Jewish  language  of 
prayer.  It  is  the  language  in  which  the  greatest 
treasures  of  the  Jewish  people  are  enshrined.  It  is 
the  language  still  common  to  Jews  of  all  lands.  It 
is,  therefore,  the  best  means  of  strengthening  na- 
tional loyalty  which  public  worship  seeks  to  accom- 
plish. Every  Jew  should  regard  it  as  a  sacred  duty 
to  learn  to  understand  the  language  at  least  to  such 
a  degree  as  to  be  able  to  follow  divine  service  in- 
telligently. 

Public  worship  should  be  conducted  with  dignity 
and  decorum.  Still,  this  point  may  be  overempha- 
sized. Too  much  insistence  on  decorum,  bordering 
on  passivity,  may  lead  to  making  the  service  lifeless 
and  chill  the  spirit  of  the  worshippers.  Devout  par- 
ticipation in  the  service,  even  though  the  tone  be 
discordant  at  times,  should  not  be  frowned  upon. 
The  hearty  response  and  the  loud  chant,  even  when 
it  lacks  in  musical  harmony,  should  rather  be  en- 
couraged and  stimulated.  Public  worship  is  most 
effective  when  the  congregation  is  urged  to  join  in 
singing  and  praying. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  reason  would  you  give  for  the  Biblical 
prohibition  against  offering  sacrifices  in  any  other 
place  but  in  the  central  sanctuary? 

2.  Explain  the  purpose  of  public  worship. 

3.  Mention  its  significance  for  the  individual. 

4.  Why  should  special  emphasis  be  placed  at 
present  on  attendance  at  synagogue? 

143 


Methods  of  Teaching   the  Jezvish  Religion 


5.  Define  ''Minyan."     How  does  public  worship 
differ  from  private  devotion? 

6.  Defend "  and    explain   the   use   of   Hebrew   in 
public  service. 

7.  What  attitude  should  we  assume  towards  the 
question  of  decorum  in  synagogue? 

8.  Give  the  reason  for  having  the  head  covered 
during  prayer. 

9.  Mention     the     fixed     prayers,     giving     their 
*Hebrew  names. 

10.  Describe  the  value  of  congregational  singing. 


144 


XL    PUBLIC  WORSHIP 
(CONTINUED) 

The  Jewish  Liturgy. — As  has  been  indicated  in 
the  previous  lessons,  the  Jewish  liturgy  was,  in  its 
main  features,  well  established  at  the  time  of  the 
destruction  of  the  second  Temple  (70  C.  E.).  The 
liturgy  was  primarily  designed  for  public  worship, 
in  which  e/ery  individual  might  insert  prayers  that 
would  suit  his  particular  needs  and  requirements. 
In  the  main  the  liturgy  is  the  expression  of  the  faith 
and  hopes,  of  the  joys  and  sorrows  of  united  Israel. 
All  the  prayers  and  supplications  are  put  in  the 
plural  number,  thus  indicating  their  original  public 
character.  Hence,  the  Messianic  hope  and  prayers 
for  the  restoration  of  Jewish  national  independence 
and  for  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  find  a  most 
prominent  place  in  the  liturgy.  The  fullest  freedom, 
however,  was  accorded  to  the  individual  worshipper 
to  add  any  prayer  that  might  best  express  his  pe- 
culiar needs  and  emotions. 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  Jewish  Prayer  Book  that 
prayers  of  praise  and  adoration,  of  thanksgiving  and 
homage  occupy  a  more  prominent  position  than 
prayers  of  supplication.  The  Book  of  Psalms  is 
largely  drawn  upon  for  use  in  the  Prayer  Book  and 
numerous  devotional  passages  from  other  parts  of 
the  Bible  are  combined  in  hymns  of  adoration.  Even 
the  prayers  of  supplication  are  not  so  much  prayers 
for  material  well-being  as  for  spiritual  attainments, 
for  the  ability  to  understand  God's  law  and  follow  it, 
to  recognize  His  greatness  and  follow  in  His  ways. 
The  yearning  for  closer  communion  with  God,  the 

W 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

eager  desire  to  be  free  from  sin  and  to  overcome 
temptation,  the  passionate  longing  for  a  clearer  in- 
tellectual insight,  for  understanding  and  knowledge, 
are  the  sentiments  most  frequently  met  with  in  the 
Jewish  Prayer  Book.  There  are,  indeed,  prayers  for 
health  and  plenty,  for  personal  comfort  and  pros- 
perity, for  relief  from  trouble  and  pain,  but  these  are 
entirely  overshadowed  by  the  more  spiritual  and 
more  universal.  The  prayers  for  universal  justice 
and  righteousness,  for  universal  peace  and  an  ex- 
alted morality,  for  the  spread  of  true  knowledge  and 
pure  religion,  are  by  far  more  numerous  than  those 
that  have  the  material  and  selfish  end  in  view.^  In 
fact,  the  latter,  while  regarded  as  proper  and  right, 
are  inserted  mainly  in  private  devotion  and  otnitted 
from  the  public  service.  The  Jewish  conception  of 
God  and  of  human  life  in  its  relation  to  the  divine 
precludes  too  much  stress  being  laid  on  trivial  mat- 
ters that  affect  only  the  body  and  the  material  side 
of  man's  well-being.  (See  Joseph,  "J^^^ism  as 
Creed  and  Life,"  pp.  258-268.) 

The  two  most  important  elements  of  the  Jewish 
liturgy  are  the  Shema'  and  the  'Amidah  or  Shemoneh 
'Esreh. 

The  Shema* — ^The  Shema*  consists  of  three  selec- 
tions from  the  Pentateuch.  The  first  section,  be- 
ginning with  the  words  ''Shema*  Israel"  (Hear,  O 
Israel)  is  taken  from  Deuteronomy  6:  4-9  and  con- 
tains the  Jewish  confession  of  faith.  Here  the  unity 
of  God  is  proclaimed  ;  the  love  of  God  is  emphasized  ; 
and  the  duty  to  study  His  Law  and  to  teach  it  to  our 
children  is  enjoined.  The  second  section  is  from 
Deuteronomy  11 :  13-21.  Here  the  justice  of  God  is 
taught — the  great  truth  that  virtue  will  surely  find 
its  reward  and  sin  will  as  surely  meet  with  retribu- 

146 


Public  Worship 


tion.  The  third  section  is  from  Numbers  15:  37-41. 
This  section  contains  the  law  regarding  the  wearing 
of  Zizit  (fringes),  which  are  to  serve  as  a  constant 
reminder  to  the  Jew  of  his  duties  to  his  God  and  to 
his  religion  and  as  a  warning  against  following  the 
evil  inclinations  of  his  heart.  'That  you  remember 
and  do  all  my  commandments  and  be  holy  unto  your 
Gcd." 

The  Shema'  is  read  both  at  the  mornmg  and  even- 
ing services  ("when  thou  liest  down  and  when  thou 
risest  up"),  and  is  considered  as  the  most  solemn 
part  of  the  service.  It  is  probably  the  most  ancient 
element  of  pubHc  worship,  since  the  Mishnah  al- 
ready speaks  of  it  as  a  well-established  institution. 
In  the  morning  service  the  reading  of  the  Shema' is 
preceded  by  two  benedictions,  known  by  their  initial 
words,  as  "Yozer  Or"  (in  which  God  is  thanked  for 
the  regular  sequence  of  day  and  night,  light  and 
darKuess)  and  "Ahabah  Rabbah"  (in  which  God  is 
praised  for  giving  us  the  Torah,  and  His  help  is  in- 
voked in  its  study  and  understanding).  This  is  fol- 
lowed by  one  blessing,  "Emet  we-Yazzib"  or  ''Ge- 
ulah"  (in  which  God  is  blessed  for  the  redemption  of 
Israel  from  Egyptian  bondage  and  declared  as  our 
Redeemer  also  in  the  future).  In  the  evening  serv- 
ice the  reading  of  the  Shema'  is  also  preceded  and 
followed  by  benedictions  of  the  same  import  as 
those  in  the  morning,  except  that  in  the  evening  an 
additional  benediction  is  recited,  which  contains  a 
prayer  for  protection  during  the  night.  In  many 
congregations  another  prayer  is  added  in  the  even- 
ing service  of  the  week-days  which  may  have  served 
originally  as  a  substitute  for  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh. 
This  begins  with  the  words  "Baruch  Adonai  le- 
'Olam"  (Blessed  be  the  Lord  forever)  and  consists 
of  a  number  of  scriptural  passages,  concluding  with 

147 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

a  prayer  for  the  rebuilding  of  Zion  and  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Kingdom  of  God  upon  earth. 

The  Shemoneh  'Esreh. — The  'Amidah  (literally, 
Standing)  is  the  second  important  element  of  the 
Jewish  liturgy.  It  is  also  referred  to  as  Tefillah 
(prayer  par  excellence)  or  Shemoneh  'Esreh  (eigh- 
teen, the  number  of  its  original  paragraphs).  This 
is  recited  at  the  morning,  afternoon  and  evening 
services,  as  well  as  at  all  the  services  recited  on  Sab- 
baths, New  Moons  and  Festivals. 

Although  still  designated  as  the  "Eighteen" 
(Shemoneh  'Esreh),  this  prayer  now  has  nineteen 
paragraphs,  the  twelfth  paragraph  having  been 
added  in  the  time  of  Rabban  Gamaliel  of  Jamnia 
(first  century  of  the  present  era)  and  is  directed 
against  slanderers  and  denunciators,  who  plot  to  do 
harm  to  the  Jewish  community.  These  nineteen 
paragraphs  fall  into  a  natural  division  of  three 
groups — the  first  group  (1-3)  containing  praises  of 
God  (Shebahim),  the  second  (4-16)  containing  pe- 
titions (Bakkashot)  and  the  last  group  (17-19)  con- 
taining thanksgiving  (Hodaah).  The  first  and  the 
third  groups  are  constant  in  all  services,  while  the 
middle  group  is  recited  only  on  week  days.  On 
Sabbaths  and  Holidays,  these  thirteen  paragraphs 
are  replaced  by  one,  which  deals  with  the  character- 
istic feature  of  the  day.  It  was  not  regarded  proper 
to  offer  petitions  on  Sabbaths  and  Holidays,  since 
these  may  bring  up  sad  reflections  and  thus  mar  the 
festive  character  of  the  day.  Thus  the  'Amidah  for 
Sabbaths  and  Holidays  has  only  seven,  instead  of 
nineteen,  paragraphs.  The  only  exception  to  this 
is  the  Musaf  (additional)  'Amidah  of  Rosh  ha- 
Shanah,  which  has  nine  paragraphs. 

The  contents  of  the  nineteen  benedictions  may  be 
148 


Public  Worship 


briefly  summarized  as  follows:  1,  Praise  of  God, 
the  God  of  our  fathers,  the  Patriarchs ;  2,  of  God's 
power;  3,  of  God's  holiness;  4,  petition  for  under- 
standing and  knowledge;  5,  for  help  to  return  to 
God;  6,  for  forgiveness  of  sin;  7,  for  deliverance 
from  trouble  and  for  redemption ;  8,  for  health ;  9, 
for  plenty  and  prosperity;  10,  for  the  gathering  of 
the  exiles ;  11,  for  the  installation  of  righteous  judges 
and  counsellors ;  12,  for  protection  against  the 
slanders  of  the  wicked;  13,  for  the  full  reward  to  be 
meted  out  to  the  righteous ;  14,  for  the  rebuilding  of 
Jerusalem  ;  15,  for  the  reestablishment  of  the  Davidic 
dynasty;  16,  for  the  favorable  acceptance  of  all  the 
aforementioned  prayers ;  17,  for  the  reintroduction 
of  the  divine  service  in  the  Temple ;  18,  thanksgiving 
for  all  of  God's  mercies ;  19,  for  the  establishment  of 
universal  peace. 

The  prevalent  custom  is  for  each  worshipper  to 
recite  the  *Amidah  silently,  while  standing,  and 
then  the  reader  (Hazzan,  Sheliah  Zibbur)  repeats 
it  aloud,  the  congregation  responding  "Amen"  after 
each  one  of  the  blessings.  During  the  repetition  of 
the  'Amidah  by  the  reader  the  **Kedushah"  (sanctifi- 
cation)  is  inserted  in  the  third  paragraph.  This  is  a 
prayer  of  adoration,  proclaiming  the  glory  and  holi- 
ness of  God,  and  is  recited  in  responsive  reading  by 
the  reader  and  the  congregation.  Before  the  last 
paragraph  the  reader  recites  the  priestly  benedic- 
tion (Numbers  6:  24-26),  when  this  is  not  done  by 
the  Kohanim  (the  descendants  of  the  priests),  who 
may  be  present.  In  most  synagogues,  this  blessing 
is  pronounced  by  the  Kohanim  only  in  the  Musaf 
service  on  holidays,  although  originally  it  was  prob- 
ably spoken  by  them  at  every  service.  (Friedlander, 
*The  Jewish  Religion,"  pp.  436-439;  Jewish  Ency- 
clopedia, s.  V.  Shema',  Shemoneh  'Esreh.) 

149 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

The  Kaddish— The  Kaddish  (hterally,  holy)  is  a 
messianic  prayer  for  the  hastening  of  the  estabHsh- 
ment  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  when  God's  name  will 
be  glorified  and  universal  peace  will  be  established. 
With  the  exception  of  the  last  sentence,  it  is  in  the 
Aramaic  language,  the  language  spoken  by  the  Jews 
during    the    second    Commonwealth    and    later    in 
Babylon.    Originally  it  was  recited,  with  responses 
by  the  congregation,  after  the  completion  of  some 
religious  study  or  discourse.     In  later  times,  it  was 
incorporated  in  the  public  service,  in  different  forms, 
and  is  always  recited,  in  one  form  or  another,  at  the 
conclusion  of  some  definite  section  of  the  service. 
The  mourners*  Kaddish  is  recited  after  the  reading 
of  a  psalm  or  a  hymn,  or  after  a  scriptural  reading 
or  study.    The  idea  that  the  Kaddish  has  a  saving 
power,  to  redeem  the  dead  from  the  sufferings  of 
Gehenna,  is  of  late,  KabbaHstic  origin.     The  mys- 
tical idea  gave  to  the  Kaddish  elements  full  of  last- 
ing significance.     The  thought  that  the  child  owes 
much  of  his  virtue  and  character  to  the  training 
given  him  by  his  parent  naturally  gave  rise  to  the 
idea  that  the  child's  piety  and  conduct,  which  the 
parent  helped  to  develop,  might  serve  to  propitiate 
the  sins  of  the  parent.    The  child  that  recites  the 
glories  of  God  at  a  public  gathering,  the  congrega- 
tion listening  to  his  prayer  and  responding  to  it, 
thereby  testifies  to  the  religious  training  that  his  par- 
ent gave  him  and  recalls  the  merit  of  the  deceased 
father  or  mother.  There  is,  above  all  else,  this  sub- 
lime motive  and  thought,  that  the  mourner,  after  the 
pain  of  a  great  bereavement,  thus  gives  expression  to 
his  faith  in  God  and  his  resignation  to  His  will. 
These  nobler  and  more   spiritual  purposes  of  the 
Kaddish  need  to  be  better  understood  since  the  other 
idea  seems  to  be  the  more  widely  accepted,  as  shown 

150 


Public   Worship 


by  several  details  in  the  observance  of  the  custom. 
The  period  of  mourning  extends  over  one  year,  but 
the  Kaddish  is  recited  only  for  eleven  months.  The 
reason  for  this  is  connected  with  the  belief  that  the 
punishment  of  Gehenna  does  not  extend  for  more 
than  twelve  months.  It  would  be  ungracious  for  a 
child  to  think  so  lightly  of  the  merits  of  his  parent  as 
to  class  him  with  the  most  wicked,  who  are  punished 
for  twelve  months.  Hence,  "Kaddish"  is  recited 
only  for  eleven  months.  It  is  also  recited  on  the 
anniversary  of  a  parent's  death  (Yahrzeit).  (Jewish 
Encyclopedia,  article   "Kaddish.") 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  mentioned  that  Me- 
morial Services  for  the  dead  are  recited  periodically 
in  the  synagogue,  especially  on  Yom  Kippur  and  on 
the  last  days  of  the  three  festivals.  Each  wor- 
shipper recites  the  prayer  silently,  mentioning  the 
name  of  his  dear  departed  ones,  while  the  reader  re- 
cites a  special  prayer  for  the  souls  of  the  prominent 
members  of  the  community,  whose  memory  is  thus 
recalled.  The  Memorial  Service  is  given  special 
consideration  on  Yom  Kippur  in  the  modern  Re- 
form Synagogues. 

Scriptural  Readings. — Scriptural  readings  always 
formed  an  important  part  of  public  worship.  A 
periodic  public  reading  of  the  Torah  is  even  en- 
joined in  the  Pentateuch  (Deuteronomy  31 :  10-13). 
There  have,  however,  been  various  customs  in 
vogue  as  to  the  quantity  and  manner  of  such  read- 
ing. In  the  course  of  time,  a  peculiar  cantillation 
was  established  for  the  reading  from  the  Torah  and 
another  for  the  reading  from  the  Prophets.  It  was 
also  established  that  the  Torah  be  completed  once 
every  year  or  once  in  every  three  years.  The  preva- 
lent custom  at  present  is  to  complete  the  reading  of 

151 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

the  Torah  every  year,  and  with  this  end  in  view  the 
Pentateuch  is  divided  into  fifty-four  sections  (sidra, 
sedarim).  The  first  section  (Bereshit)  is  read  on 
the  Sabbath  immediately  following  the  feast  of  Suk- 
kot,  and  the  last  section  (Ve-Zot  ha-Berachah)  is 
read  on  Simhat  Torah,  when  the  completion  of  the 
reading  of  the  Torah  is  fittingly  celebrated.  On 
festivals,  appropriate  selections  pertaining  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  feast  are  read. 

Originally,  the  worshippers  themselves  read  the 
selections  to  which  they  were  called.  At  present, 
however,  the  whole  section  is  read  by  an  expert 
reader  (Ba'al  Kore),  while  those  honored  by  being 
called  up  to  the  reading  desk  are  content  with  re- 
citing the  benedictions  before  and  after  the  reading. 
Selections  from  the  Torah  are  read  at  the  public 
service  of  every  Saturday  morning  and  afternoon, 
also  on  Mondays  and  Thursdays,  New  Moons,  Fes- 
tivals and  Fast  days  and  the  week-days  of  the  fes- 
tivals (Hoi  ha-Mo'ed).  The  number  of  persons 
called  up  to  the  reading  varies  as  follows :  On  Sab- 
bath afternoons,  Mondays  and  Thursdays,  Hanuk- 
kah  and  Purim  and  Fast  Days  three  are  called  up; 
on  New  Moons  and  Hoi  ha-Mo'ed  four;  on  Rosh 
Hashanah  and  the  other  Festivals  five ;  on  the  Day 
of  Atonement  six  and  on  Sabbaths  seven.  On  days 
when  a  selection  from  the  Prophets  is  also  read,  the 
person  invited  to  read  this  (Maftir)  also  repeats  the 
last  few  verses  of  the  section  from  the  Torah.  The 
first  honor  is  usually  given  to  a  Kohen  and  the  sec- 
ond to  a  Levite. 

Besides  the  sidra,  a  selection  from  the  Prophets 
(Haftarah)  is  read  on  Sabbaths  and  holidays.  This 
is  taken  either  from  the  Early  or  Later  Prophets  and 
usually  bears  some  relation  to  the  subject  matter 
of  the  Pentateuchal  portion  for  the  day.    It  is  gen- 

152 


Public  Worship 


erally  supposed  that  this  custom  originated  in  times 
of  persecution,  when  the  reading  from  the  Torah 
was  forbidden.  Since  the  Torah  could  be  read  only 
from  a  scroll,  while  the  Prophets  might  also  be  read 
by  heart,  a  prophetic  reading  was  substituted  for  the 
section  of  the  Torah.  When  the  prohibition  was  re- 
moved, these  prophetic  readings  were  still  retained 
and  were  read  immediately  after  the  sidra,  with 
which  the  service  was  concluded  (Haftarah-conclu- 
sion).  The  reading  of  the  Haftarah  is  preceded  and 
followed  by  a  special  set  of  blessings. 

In  olden  times,  the  reading  from  the  Torah  and 
from  the  Prophets  was  followed  by  a  translation  in 
the  vernacular.  This  custom  had  been  in  vogue  dur- 
ing the  Second  Commonwealth  and  continued 
throughout  the  Talmudic  period.  This  practice, 
however,  has  long  since  been  discontinued  and  was 
only  recently  revived  in  the  modern  Reform  syna- 
gogues. In  many  of  these  synagogues,  the  triennial 
cycle  (and  in  some  even  a  septennial)  is  followed  in- 
stead of  the  generally  prevalent  annual  cycle  of  read- 
ing the  Law.  The  custom  of  "calling  up"  individual 
worshippers  to  the  section  ('Aliyah)  assigned  to 
each  one,  has  also  been  abolished  in  many  Reform 
synagogues,  where  the  reader  recites  the  blessings 
and  also  the  sidra,  omitting  also  the  peculiar  cantil- 
lation  with  which  the  reading  is  chanted  in  most 
synagogues.  (Friedlander,  "The  Jewish  Religion," 
pp.  345-349;  Joseph,  "Judaism  as  Creed  and  Life,'* 
pp.  224-5  ;  Rosenau,  "Jewish  Ceremonial  Institutions 
and  Customs,"  pp.  33-43.) 

Other  Elements  of  Public  Worship. — In  addition 
to  the  reading  of  the  Shema'  with  its  accompanying 
blessings  and  of  the  Shemoneh  'Esreh,  the  Jewish 
liturgy   contains   also   a   number  of   blessings   and 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

psalms,  hymns  and  chants,  some  of  which  go  back 
to  most  ancient  times.  The  morning  service  proper 
commences  with  a  series  of  benedictions  (Birchot 
ha-Shahar),  referring  to  the  change  from  night  to 
day  and  from  sleep  to  wakefulness,  followed  by  re- 
flections of  gratitude  to  God  and  adoration  of  His 
holy  name,  and  by  Scriptural  and  Rabbinic  selec- 
tions pertaining  to  the  Temple  service,  for  which 
prayer  is  to  serve  as  a  substitute.  Then  comes  a 
series  of  psalms  (Mizmorim)  and  hymns,  conclud- 
ing with  the  Song  of  Moses.  In  this  place,  addi- 
tional psalms  are  inserted  on  Sabbaths  and  holidays. 
These  psalms  and  hymns  are  preceded  by  a  bene- 
diction (Baruch  she-Amar)  and  followed  by  a  bene- 
diction (Yishtabah).  Then  follow  the  Shema'  with 
its  accompanying  blessings  and  the  Shemoneh 
'Esreh.  The  service  is  concluded  with  a  short  sup- 
plication (considerably  lengthened  on  Mondays  and 
Thursdays)  for  Israel  in  exile  and  a  collection  of 
verses  expressive  of  the  great  hope  for  the  future 
redemption.  The  glorious  Messianic  hymn,  'Alenu, 
is  recited  at  the  end  of  every  service.  Correspond- 
ing to  the  songs  of  the  Levites  in  the  Temple  serv- 
ice, a  different  psalm  is  recited  every  day  of  the 
week,  with  which  the  service  concludes.  Some  read 
additional  scriptural  selections,  such  as  the  Ten 
Commandments,  the  chapter  of  the  Manna,  etc.,  but 
these  are  not  regarded  as  part  of  the  service. 

Piyyutim,  Selihot,  Kinot.— The  elements  of  the 
Jewish  public  service  hitherto  enumerated  are  to  a 
large  extent  the  same  as  were  adopted  when  the 
prayer  book  was  first  compiled  and  these  have  found 
general  acceptance.  There  is  also  another  group  of 
prayers,  the  "Piyyutim"  or  poetical  compositions, 
which  are  of  later  origin  and  have  found  only  partial 

154 


Public   Worship 


acceptance.  These  vary  greatly  in  content,  as  well 
as  in  their  poetic  and  devotional  value.  Some  of 
them  are  the  compositions  of  some  of  the  greatest 
medieval  Jewish  poets,  as  Jehudah  Halevi,  Solomon 
ibn  Gebirol  and  others,  while  others  are  the  works 
of  mediocre  writers  whose  only  virtue  was  their  fine 
religious  zeal  and  their  thorough  familiarity  with 
Jewish  literature.  The  "Piyyutim"  found  their 
place  chiefly  in  the  services  of  the  Festivals  and  of 
some  of  the  more  important  Sabbaths.  While 
originally  intended  merely  as  temporary  additions, 
each  reader  having  been  given  the  liberty  of  insert- 
ing such  compositions  as  pleased  his  fancy,  many  of 
them  were  later  incorporated  into  the  prayer  book 
for  the  holidays  (Mahzor-cycle  of  prayers)  and  be- 
came fixed  in  the  liturgy.  The  recitation  of  these, 
however,  has  never  been  regarded  as  obligatory  and 
some  Rabbis  even  strongly  objected  to  the  "Piyyu- 
tim"  on  the  ground  that  they  interrupted  the  serv- 
ice and  unduly  prolonged  it.  In  modern  times,  only 
a  few  of  these,  especially  those  designed  for  the 
New  Year  and  the  Day  of  Atonement,  are  still  read 
in  the  service. 

A  special  kind  of  "Piyyutim"  are  the  penitential 
hymns  (Selihot)  recited  before  dawn  during  the 
period  beginning  with  the  week  before  New  Year 
and  extending  to  the  Day  of  Atonement  and  also 
during  the  services  on  fast  days.  These  are  mainly 
prayers  for  the  forgiveness  of  sin  and  supplications 
for  redemption  from  the  bondage'  of  exile. 

The  special  elegies  for  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple  and  of  the  national  independence,  recited  on 
the  Fast  of  Ab,  are  known  as  "Kinot"  (Lamenta- 
tions). Some  of  these  are  of  a  highly  poetical  qual- 
ity, especially  the  Zionidcs  recited  at  the  close  of  the 
morning  services.     Both  these  and  the  Selihot  are 

155 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

usually  published  in  separate  volumes  and  are  not 
included  in  the  regular  prayer  book. 

RESUME 

The  Jewish  Prayer  Book  is  designed  primarily 
for  public  worship.  However,  it  was  never  meant 
to  be  exclusive.  Alongside  of  the  regular  prayers 
therein  included,  other  prayers  might  be  added  by 
the  individual  worshipper,  which  best  suit  his  re- 
quirements. The  insertion  of  additional  prayers  by 
individuals  is  not  only  permitted,  but  expected  and 
encouraged. 

The  Jewish  liturgy  consists  mainly  of  prayers  of 
adoration  and  thanksgiving.  Even  the  supplications 
are  mostly  such  as  ask  for  spiritual  and  intellectual 
advancement,  for  national  and  communal  well-being 
rather  than  for  individual  and  material  things.  A 
large  portion  of  our  liturgy  is  made  up  of  prayers 
for  the  approach  of  the  Messianic  period,  when  jus- 
tice and  righteousness  will  be  established  on  earth 
and  universal  peace  will  reign  supreme,  when  Israel 
will  be  restored  to  his  ancient  patrimony  and  the 
knowledge  of  God  and  of  an  exalted  morality  will 
fill  the  earth.  The  prayers  for  material  prosperity 
are  but  few  in  number  and  are  given  but  little  promi- 
nence. 

The  main  elements  of  the  Jewish  Prayer  Book  are 
the  "ShemaV*  the  Jewish  confession  of  faith,  and 
the  "Shemoneh  'Esreh,"  containing  the  petitions 
offered  in  the  spirit  just  mentioned.  Around  these 
as  the  centre  is  grouped  a  number  of  hymns  and 
psalms.  The  "Kaddish"  is  a  doxology,  found  in 
various  forms  in  the  prayer  book.  It  is  recited,  in 
one  form,  by  mourners,  who  show  by  this  act  their 
faith  in  God  and  their  resignation  to  His  will  in 

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times  of  greatest  trial.  The  more  prevalent  reason 
assigned  for  the  mourners*  Kaddish  is  the  belief  that 
it  has  a  saving  power  and  might  affect  the  fate  of 
the  deceased  in  the  future  world.  The  merit  of  the 
parent  who  has  succeeded  in  rearing  a  child  in  piety 
and  moral  conduct  is  recalled  when  the  child  pro- 
claims the  greatness  and  glory  of  God  at  public 
worship. 

The  reading  from  the  Torah  and  from  the 
Prophets  during  public  service  has  always  been  an 
integral  part  of  Jewish  worship.  The  divisions  of 
the  Pentateuch  in  accordance  with  the  annual  cycle 
of  reading  is  the  most  prevalent.  Indeed,  many 
Jews  would  date  their  letters  and  other  corre- 
spondence by  mentioning  the  sidra  of  the  week,  since 
the  days  of  the  week  have  no  special  names  in 
Hebrew.  Thus,  the  first  day  of  Bereshit  would 
stand  for  the  Sunday  of  the  week  on  the  Sabbath  of 
which  the  first  portion  of  Genesis  is  read  in  the  syna- 
gogue. To  be  called  up  to  the  reading  of  a  portion 
of  the  law  has  always  been  regarded  as  a  great 
honor.  The  "Bar  Mizwah"  boy  is  first  introduced 
as  a  full-fledged  member  of  the  community  by  being 
invited  to  read  a  portion  of  the  sidra.  The  bride- 
groom is  also  distinguished  by  a  similar  honor. 

Among  the  many  "Piyyutim"  "Selihot"  and  "Ki- 
not"  there  are  quite  a  number  that  possess  high  de- 
votional value  and  exquisite  poetical  worth.  Others 
are  of  inferior  quality.  Many  of  these  are  still  re- 
tained in  the  liturgy,  while  custom  differs  greatly  as 
to  the  use  to  be  made  of  them  in  the  service. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  general  characteristic  of  the 
Jewish  Prayer  Book? 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

2.  Name  and  describe  the  two  chief  elements  of 
the  Jewish  Hturgy. 

3.  Define  Kaddish  and  explain  its  use  in  the 
service. 

4.  Explain  the  term  sidra  and  mention  the  dif- 
ferent systems  of  reading  from  the  Law. 

5.  According  to  what  principle  was  the  Haftarah 
selected?  What  reason  is  assigned  for  the  reading 
of  the  Haftarah? 

6.  Give  a  brief  summary  of  the  daily  morning 
service,  mentioning  its  chief  component  elements. 

7.  Describe  the  use  of  'Tiyyutim"  in  Jewish 
service.  What  is  meant  by  that  term?  What  are 
"Selihot?"   *'Kinot?" 

8.  Define  briefly  the  following  Hebrew  terms: 
'Aliyah,  Hazzan,  Kedushah,  Ba'al  Kore,  Maftir. 


158 


XII.     PRIVATE  DEVOTION  AND  HOME 
CEREMONIES 

The  Value  of  Prayer. — Prayer,  whether  in  the 
form  of  benediction  or  suppHcation,  is  a  natural  im- 
pulse of  the  human  soul.  We  long  to  come  into  com- 
munion with  God,  our  Father;  to  give  thanks  to 
Him  for  the  blessings  that  we  enjoy;  to  sing  His 
praises  and  exalt  His  qualities  as  we,  in  our  limited 
knowledge,  understand  them ;  and  to  lay  our  needs 
and  desires  before  Him.  Our  conception  of  God  as 
a  merciful  Father,  who  takes  interest  in  our  lives, 
who  guides  our  destinies  and  is  ever  near  to  us, 
begets  a  desire  on  our  part  to  come  ever  nearer  to 
Him,  to  approach  more  closely  to  the  Author  of  our 
being.  This  desire  finds  its  concrete  expression  in 
prayer.  While  engaged  in  prayer,  the  divine  that  is 
within  us  asserts  itself;  our  thoughts  and  emotions 
become  purified ;  all  coarseness  and  all  evil  are  for- 
gotten, because  of  the  realization  that  we  stand  be- 
fore God,  the  Source  of  all  holiness,  the  Fountain  of 
purity.  Prayer  is  the  effort  of  the  divine  within  us 
to  express  itself  in  its  relation  to  the  divine  in  the 
universe.  The  more  often  the  opportunity  is  given 
for  such  an  expression  and  the  more  fully  its  import 
is  comprehended,  the  stronger  will  be  the  hold  of 
the  divine  upon  our  lives,  the  purer  will  our  souls 
become,  the  holier  we  shall  be,  "even  as  the  Lord, 
our  God,  is  holy." 

That  God  is  pleased  to  listen  to  our  prayers  is 
frequently  reiterated  in  the  Bible.  Not  that  He 
needs  our  praises  or  has  to  be  reminded  of  our 
wants,  but  because  He  wishes  us  to  be  pure  and 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

holy,  a  state  best  attained  through  prayer.  Prayer 
affects  not  God,  but  ourselves.  Through  its  effect 
upon  us,  however,  it  may  also  cause  a  change  in 
God's  attitude  toward  us.  The  efficacy  of  prayer,  in 
which  we  believe,  is  no  contradiction  to  the  highest 
and  most  exalted  conception  that  we  may  have  of 
the  deity.  God's  decrees  are  indeed  unchangeable, 
if  the  conditions  that  prompted  them  remain  un- 
changed. When  we  cause  a  change  in  these  condi- 
tions, by  improving  our  lives  and  thereby  becoming 
more  worthy  of  God's  blessing,  God's  decrees  are 
likely  to  change  in  our  favor.  With  our  finite  minds 
and  limited  understanding,  we  are  unable  to  know 
exactly  what  will  be  good  for  us  and  what  not. 
We  must  rely  upon  God's  inscrutable  wisdom  to  de- 
cide what  is  best  for  us.  Our  part  consists  in  mak- 
ing ourselves  deserving  of  His  goodness  and  grace. 
Prayer  is  thus  efficacious  in  itself.  It  helps  to  trans- 
form us  and  in  this  way  makes  us  worthy  to  receive 
the  blessing  sought  or  to  escape  the  misfortune  that 
is  imminent. 

This  is  the  sense  in  which  we  are  to  understand 
this  fundamental  institution  of  all  religions.  The 
natural  yearning  of  the  human  soul  is  to  tell  God  what 
it  feels  in  relation  to  Him.  Prayer  is  the  form  in 
which  this  natural  craving  finds  its  expression.  Be- 
sides the  satisfaction  and  relief  it  offers  to  the  one 
seeking  communion  with  God,  it  has  in  itself  the 
power  of  ennobling  life  and  purifying  the  soul.  Thus 
ennobled  and  thus  purified,  we  become  more  worthy 
of  His  blessings,  more  deserving  of  His  loving  care 
and  protection.  Our  praises  and  our  supplications 
cannot  affect  God's  being;  but  they  have  an  effect 
on  us  and  through  this,  affect  God's  relations  to  us. 
We  do  not  believe  in  a  God  who  is  distant  and  stern, 
acting  by  immutable  laws  and  having  no  regard  for 

160 


Private  Devotion  and  Home  Ceremonies 

our  interests  and  well-being.  Our  God  is  a  God  of 
mercy  and  kindness,  who  is  full  of  compassion,  de- 
siring our  improvement  and  betterment.  When  we 
make  the  effort  to  return  to  Him,  to  banish  from  our 
hearts  all  evil,  to  purify  our  desires  and  our  erno- 
tions.  He  is  ready  to  accept  us  and  to  assist  us  with 
His  guidance.  A  whole-hearted  prayer  is  one  form 
in  which  such  an  effort  becomes  manifest,  indeed,  a 
whole-hearted  prayer  is  in  itself  a  process  of  such 
purification  and  bears  its  answer  within  itself. 

Convinced  of  the  infinite  power  and  goodness  of 
God,  we  ask  of  Him  to  grant  our  wishes ;  to  remove 
from  us  danger  and  sickness ;  to  guide  us  aright  and 
protect  us  from  all  evil.  This  is  our  chief  refuge  in 
times  of  perplexity  and  doubt,  our  great  consolation 
in  times  of  trouble  and  misfortune.  It  is  the  very 
sustenance  of  our  spiritual  lives.  We  pray  and  hope 
that  our  prayer  will  be  granted.  We  pray  all  the 
time  being  conscious  that  God  is  waiting  for  our  re- 
pentance and  ready  to  assist  us  in  our  effort  to  reach 
to  holiness  and  perfection.  Our  immediate  desires 
may  not  be  granted,  for  God  in  His  wisdom  may  re- 
gard their  fulfillment  baneful  to  us  or  to  others,  but 
the  object  of  our  prayer  is  attained.  We  have  be- 
come better  and  God's  justice,  always  tempered  with 
mercy,  will  mete  out  to  us  the  reward  in  accordance 
with  our  deserts.  Many  of  the  supplications  in  our 
prayer  book  begin  with  the  words  "May  it  be  Thy 
will,  O  Lord,  our  God."  We  hope  that  our  desires 
may  coincide  with  God's  will,  but  we  also  realize 
that  God's  will  is  more  beneficent  and  more  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  highest  wisdom  than  our  desires. 
By  the  act  of  prayer  we  become  more  prepared  and 
more  qualified  to  have  God's  will  inclined  toward 
our  individual  wants.  Thus  we  pray  because  we  are 
naturally  moved  to  do  so,  because  through  praying 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

our  lives  become  improved  and  because  vv^e  believe 
that  v^hen  our  lives  are  nobler  and  holier  we  may  be 
more  deserving  of  God's  bounty  and  protection. 
(Read  carefully  Friedlander,  "The  Jewish  Religion," 
pp.  183-189,  especially  the  quotation  from  Albo's 
"Ikkarim"  on  pp.  188-9;  Joseph,  "Judaism  as  Creed 
and  Life,"  pp.  257-273.) 

Private  Devotion. — ^The  real  object  of  prayer  may 
be  attained  in  private  devotion  perhaps  to  a  better 
degree  than  in  public  worship,  which  has  also  other 
purposes  in  view  (see  Chapter  X).  In  private  de- 
votion the  natural  impulse  is  unrestricted  and  the 
worshipper  is  at  liberty  to  expose  his  innermost 
emotions,  to  lay  his  soul  bare  before  his  Creator. 
Prayer  then  is  most  intense,  because  most  natural ; 
it  reacts  more  quickly  because  it  is  more  sponta- 
neous. Length  of  prayer  or  its  form  are  then  of  little 
consequence ;  sincerity  and  wholeheartedness  on  the 
part  of  the  worshipper  are  what  count  most.  Private 
devotion  not  only  helps  to  purify  the  soul  of  the 
worshipper  and  ennoble  his  life,  but  it  also  hallows 
the  atmosphere  of  the  home  where  such  prayers  are 
offered.  No  one  can  think  evil  thoughts,  use  in- 
decent language  or  do  unseemly  acts  in  the  presence 
of  one  engaged  in  a  devout  and  sincere  prayer.  The 
magnetic  effect  of  the  pronunciation  of  a  whole- 
hearted prayer  upon  those  who  are  within  its  hear- 
ing can  hardly  be  overestimated.  Voices  are  hushed, 
thoughts  are  chastened  and  the  very  air  becomes 
surcharged  with  sanctity.  A  home  in  which  prayers 
are  recited  at  regular  intervals  is  a  home  sanctified 
by  the  spirit  of  God,  a  home  where  chastity,  purity 
and  the  higher,  divine  life  hold  sway. 

Our  Rabbis  fully  realized  the  great  value  of  pri- 
vate devotion  for  the  true  religious  life  and  made 

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Private  Devotion  and  Home  Ceremonies 


ample  provision  for  it.  If  unable  to  attend  syna- 
gogue regularly,  one  may  repeat  all  the  prayers  of 
the  liturgy,  with  but  few  exceptions,  in  the  privacy 
of  one's  home.  Realizing  the  important  psychologi- 
cal principle  that  emotions  become  more  abiding 
only  through  exercise  and  practice,  the  Rabbis  en- 
join that  children  should  be  taught  to  pray  from 
their  very  infancy.  As  soon  as  the  infant  is  able 
to  articulate  words,  he  should  be  taught  some  simple 
prayers,  such  as  the  Shema'  or  the  verse:  "Moses 
commanded  us  a  law,  an  inheritance  of  the  congre- 
gation of  Jacob"  (Deuteronomy  33:4).  The  child 
should  be  constantly  made  to  feel  his  dependence 
upon  God  and  taught  to  express  this  feeling  in  words 
of  praise  or  thanksgiving.  In  the  many  religious 
customs  and  observances  of  the  year,  special  care 
is  taken  to  give  the  child  a  place  in  their  perform- 
ance, thus  helping  in  the  healthy  growth  of  his  re- 
ligious feelings  and  emotions. 

Besides  the  spontaneous  prayers  that  every  indi- 
vidual might  utter  on  certain  occasions  of  joy  or 
sorrow  or  when  the  spirit  moves  him,  our  Rabbis 
indicated  the  occasions  when  such  prayers  should 
be  recited,  and,  in  most  cases,  even  suggested  the 
form  which  these  should  assume. 

Benedictions. — "It  is  unlawful  for  man  to  enjoy 
anything  in  this  world  without  previously  pronounc- 
ing a  benediction  (Berachah),"  is  a  general  rule  laid 
down  by  our  Rabbis.  We  should  always  be  con- 
scious of  the  fact  that  all  the  blessings  that  we  en- 
joy are  vouchsafed  to  us  by  God,  the  Source  of  all 
goodness,  and  acknowledge  this  by  words  of  grati- 
tude and  praise.  Special  blessings  have  thus  been 
fixed  for  all  the  various  enjoyments  that  we  may 
experience  in  life.    These  benedictions  usually  begin 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

with  the  words:  **Blessed  art  Thou,  O  Lord  our 
God,  King  of  the  Universe,"  and  conclude  with  a 
reference  to  the  special  object  of  enjoyment, 
whether  it  be  in  the  form  of  eating  and  drinking,  a 
pleasing  sight  or  an  agreeable  smell.  Before  the 
performance  of  a  certain  religious  act,  the  initial 
words  given  above  are  amplified  as  follows :  "Who 
sanctified  us  with  His  commandments  and  com- 
manded us  to,"  concluding  with  a  reference  to  the 
particular  act  (Mizwah)  about  to  be  done.  Cherish- 
ing the  distinction  of  being  God's  chosen  people,  to 
whom  He  revealed  His  Law,  the  Jew  lost  no  oppor- 
tunity to  offer  thanks  for  the  distinction  and  obliga- 
tion thus  conferred  upon  him.  The  fulfillment  of  a 
Mizwah  is  regarded  as  a  source  of  great  joy,  the  op- 
portunity to  obey  God's  commands  a  peculiar  de- 
light. Therefore  thanks  are  offered  in  the  blessing 
preceding  the  fulfillment  of  every  such  duty. 

Characteristic  of  their  strong  faith  in  God  and 
their  complete  resignation  to  His  will,  the  Rabbis 
ordained  that  a  special  blessing  be  offered  on  hear- 
ing an  evil  report  as  well  as  on  hearing  a  good  re- 
port. In  the  latter  case,  the  blessing  concludes  with 
the  words  *'Who  art  good  and  dispensest  good," 
while  in  the  former  it  ends  simply  with  the  words 
"the  true  Judge."  He  knows  best  and  His  judg- 
ment we  accept  with  resignation  and  thank  Him  for 
it,  knowing  that  no  positive  evil  can  ever  proceed 
from  Him.  (For  the  special  benedictions  to  be  re- 
cited on  certain  occasions,  see  Singer's  Prayer  Book, 
pp.  287-292). 

Grace  After  Meals. — Special  significance  is  at- 
tached to  the  blessing  to  be  recited  after  partaking 
of  a  regular  meal.  Basing  themselves  on  the  verse 
"And  thou  shalt  eat  and  be  satisfied,  and  bless  the 

164 


Private  Devotion  and  Home  Ceremonies 


Lord  thy  God  for  the  good  land  which  He  hath 
given  thee"  (Deuteronomy  8:10),  the  Rabbis  re- 
gard the  prayer  after  meals  as  a  Biblical  injunction 
and  therefore  attach  particular  importance  to  it. 
In  its  present  form,  the  blessing  after  meals  con- 
sists of  four  paragraphs.  In  the  first  paragraph 
thanks  are  offered  to  God  for  giving  sustenance  to 
all  His  creatures.  In  the  second  paragraph  thanks 
are  offered  to  God  for  the  blessings  vouchsafed  to 
the  people  of  Israel,  such  as  Palestine  and  the  Torah. 
On  Hanukkah  and  Purim  the  special  prayer  Al  ha- 
Nissim  is  inserted  in  the  second  paragraph.  The 
third  paragraph  is  a  prayer  for  the  rebuilding  of 
Jerusalem,  the  restoration  of  the  Davidic  dynasty 
and  of  the  Temple  service.  On  Sabbaths  and  holi- 
days, additional  prayers,  pertaining  to  the  character 
of  the  day,  are  inserted  in  this  paragraph.  The 
fourth  paragraph  is  a  later  addition  and  refers  es- 
pecially to  the  relief  obtained  by  the  Jews  after 
the  Hadrianic  persecutions.  This  paragraph  con- 
cludes with  a  series  of  short  prayers,  beginning  with 
ha-Rahaman  (The  Merciful  One),  which  are  still 
later  additions.  Still  further  additions  are  made  on 
the  occasion  of  a  festival  meal,  especially  at  the 
feast  following  the  ceremony  of  circumcision.  At 
a  wedding  feast,  the  seven  blessings  recited  at  the 
ceremony  are  repeated  after  the  grace  after  the  meal. 
Shorter  forms  of  this  prayer  are  provided  for  spe- 
cial occasions.  The  shortest  form  is  that  taught  to 
children :  "Blessed  be  the  Merciful  One,  King  of  the 
Universe,  Master  of  this  bread.'*  An  abstract  of 
the  grace  is  recited  after  partaking  of  a  shorter 
repast,  as  after  eating  cake,  or  fruit  for  which  Pal- 
estine is  famed,  or  after  drinking  wine.  A  still 
shorter  form  is  read  after  drinking  water  or  eating 
vegetables,  or  ordinary  fruit.    (See  Dcmbitz,  "Jew- 

165 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

ish  Services  in  Synagogue  and  Home,"  pp.  339-345 ; 
Friedlander,  "The  Jewish  ReHgion,"  pp.  442-4,  and 
the  various  prayer  books.) 

Night  Prayer. — Besides  the  regular  evening  serv- 
ice ('Arbit),  a  special  prayer  is  recited  before  retir- 
ing for  the  night.  The  chief  element  of  this  prayer 
is  the  repetition  of  the  first  section  of  the  Shema* 
(hence  its  name,  Keriat  Shema'  al  ha-Mittah— the 
reading  of  the  Shema'  on  going  to  bed)  w^ith  a  bene- 
diction asking  for  peace  and  protection  during  the 
night.  Several  appropriate  psalms  and  excerpts 
from  the  regular  evening  service  are  added  and  the 
prayer  concludes  v^ith  the  v^^ell-known  hymn  Adon 
'Olam  (Master  of  the  Universe).  Shorter  forms  of 
this  are  provided  for  young  children  (Singer  Prayer 
Book,  pp.  293-297,  329;  Dembitz  1.  c.  pp.  335-7). 

Morning  Prayer.—On  rising  in  the  morning  it  is 
customary  to  recite  a  prayer  of  gratitude  to  God 
for  His  having  restored  life  and  vigor  after  a  night's 
rest.  The  morning  ablution,^  v^hich  is  enjoined  by 
Jewish  law,  is  also  accompanied  with  a  benediction. 
Immediately  upon  this  follows  a  benediction  for 
the  gift  of  the  Torah  and  a  prayer  that  its  study 
may  not  depart  from  us  or  from  our  descendants. 
This  is  followed  by  the  priestly  benediction  and  two 
selections  from  the  Mishnah  after  which  a  noble 
prayer  (Elohai  Neshamah),  referring  to  God  as  the 
author  of  our  being  and  the  dispenser  of  life,  is  read. 
These  prayers  are  offered  at  home  before  the  regu- 
lar morning  service  (Shaharit),  although  they  may 
be  repeated  also  during  the  regular  service  in  the 
synagogue. 

For  young  children,  a  briefer  form  is  provided, 
consisting  of  short  verses  from  the  Scriptures,  ex- 

166 


Private  Devotion  and  Home  Ceremonie: 


pressive  of  faith  in  God  and  hope  for  His  blessings. 
The  home  services  connected  with  the  observance 
of  the  Sabbath  and  of  the  hoHdays  have  been  treated 
under  those  heads  and  should  be  again  rehearsed 
at  this  juncture,  both  for  the  sake  of  completeness 
and  also  as  a  means  of  review.  Some  other  special 
home  prayers  will  be  treated  in  the  following 
chapter. 

RESUME 

We  would  pray,  even  if  we  were  not  enjoined  to 
do  so.  Just  as  we  are  anxious  to  give  expression 
in  words  to  our  feeling  of  love  and  affection  for  our 
parents,  so  we  long  to  express  our  adoration  for 
God.  We  look  up  to  God  as  our  kind  Father  and 
we  wish  to  tell  Him  of  our  devotion,  to  sing  His 
praises  and  to  lay  our  needs  and  desires  before  Him. 
When  we  are  in  trouble  or  danger,  we  pour  out-our 
hearts  to  God  and  we  feel  relieved,  assured^of  His 
protection  and  help.  When  w^e  experience  a  great 
joy,  we  yearn  to  express  our  gratitude  to  Him,  the 
Dispenser  of  all  blessings.  In  times  of  darkness 
and  despair,  as  well  as  in  times  of  light  and  cheer, 
we  feel  impelled  to  turn  to  God  with  prayers  of 
thanksgiving  or  supplication. 

Besides  ,  satisfying  a  natural  craving,  prayer  also 
has  a  purifying  influence  upon  the  worshipper.  The 
consciousness  of  being  near  to  God,  of  standing  in 
the  presence  of,  the  source  of  holiness  and  purity, 
cannot  but  move  us  to' banish  all  evil  thoughts,  all 
unholy  desires  from  our  soul,  to  cleanse  ourselves 
and  endeavor  to  become  purer  and  nobler.  Prayer 
thus  becomes  a  most  potent  stimulus  to  the  higher, 
spiritual  life. 

Chastened  and  sanctified  through  prayer,  our 
167 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

faith  strengthened  and  our  emotions  purified 
through  the  consciousness  of  our  nearness  to  God, 
we  may  rightly  expect  that  God  will  answer  our 
petitions  and  grant  our  desires.  Even  His  decrees 
might  be  changed  through  the  change  that  prayer 
has  wrought  in  us.  This  is  the  blessed  consolation 
that  prayer  offers  to  us.  This  is  the  great  hope 
it  extends  to  us.  It  first  affects  us  and  thus  makes 
us  better  qualified  for  and  more  deserving  of  God's 
mercy  and  protection. 

We  must,  however,  always  think  of  the  limita- 
tions of  our  minds  and  of  God's  infinite  knowledge 
and  wisdom.  A  prayer  that  remains  unanswered 
may  often  prove  a  greater  blessing  than  if  it  were 
granted.  His  ways  are  inscrutable  and  we  are  not 
always  able  to  understand  them.  The  unfailing 
characteristic  of  all  our  prayers  should  be  perfect 
submission  to  God's  will  and  perfect  faith  in  His 
wisdom. 

In  private  devotion,  the  object  of  prayer  may  be 
realized  perhaps  more  completely  than  in  public 
worship.  All  reserve  is  removed  when  man  is  alone 
with  his  Maker  and  the  effect  on  the  soul  of  the 
worshipper  is  more  immediate.  Private  devotion  in 
the  home  has  a  powerful  influence  on  the  moral 
and  religious  development  of  the  family  circle.  Ju- 
daism recognized  its  value  and  made  ample  pro- 
vision for  it. 

The  habit  of  prayer  should  be  cultivated  and  nur- 
tured. Children  should  be  taught  to  pray  if  we 
would  have  them  grow  up  under  the  blessed  influ- 
ence of  religion.  It  is  never  too  early  to  begin  such 
training.  Even  when  the  import  of  the  prayer  is 
not  fully  understood,  the  mere  recital  of  it  and  the 
realization  of  its  general  meaning  has  a  beneficent 
effect  upon  the  soul. 

168 


Private  Devotion  and  Home  Ceremonies 

Besides  the  regular  services,  our  Rabbis  provided 
special  prayers  for  all  occasions  of  life,  to  be  read 
at  home. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Illustrate  by  examples  from  every-day  life  the 
naturalness  of  prayer. 

2.  What  effect  has  prayer  upon  the  worshipper? 

3.  How  may  it  affect  God's  relation  to  us?  Ex- 
plain the  meaning  of  ''efficacy  of  prayer." 

4.  What  influence  may  be  exerted  by  private  de- 
votion on  the  home  and  the  family? 

5.  What  is  the  general  rule  governing  benedic- 
tions? 

6.  Why  should  a  blessing  be  pronounced  before 
the  performance  of  a  religious  act?     Illustrate. 

7.  Give  a  description  of  the  contents  of  Grace 
after  Meals.  Why  is  special  importance  attached 
to  it? 

8.  Give  the  elements  of  the  prayer  before  re- 
tiring and  of  the  various  prayers  on  arising  in  the 
morning. 


169 


XIII.     SYMBOLS  AND  RITES 

Purpose  of  Symbols. — A  symbol  is  some  concrete 
object  that  represents  or  suggests  an  idea.  It  may 
have  within  itself  a  representation  of  the  idea,  or  as 
is  more  often  the  case,  it  may  suggest  the  idea 
simply  because  it  was  associated  with  it  for  a  cer- 
tain time.  Thus  we  find  that  the  same  idea  is  ex- 
pressed by  different  symbols  and  also  that  one 
symbol  may  suggest  different  ideas  to  different  peo- 
ple. The  immediate  meaning  of  the  symbol  is  given 
to  it  when  it  is  first  adopted,  but  its  suggestiveness 
grows  and  expands  in  the  course  of  time.  Its  im- 
mediate purpose  is  to  serve  as  a  sign,  an  emblem 
of  a  certain  idea.  Having  served  as  such  for  a  long 
period,  the  symbol  gathers  additional  significance 
and  importance,  through  the  associations  that  have 
grown  up  around  it  in  the  life  of  the  people  that 
cherished  it.  If  the  fathers  of  this  country  had 
adopted  a  flag  of  different  color  and  design,  it  would 
probably  represent  to  us  the  same  ideals  and  stir 
our  emotions  to  as  high  a  pitch  of  patriotic  enthu- 
siasm. But  since  they  have  adopted  particular  col- 
ors and  a  special  design,  we  would  sacrifice  much 
rather  than  permit  a  change  in  the  arrangement  of 
a  star  or  in  the  relative  size  and  color  of  a  stripe 
in  the  flag  of  our  land.  Conventional  at  the  begin- 
ning, the  symbol  gathered  significance  and  impor- 
tance in  the  course  of  time,  until  it  has  come  ^to 
assume  In  our  eyes  an  intrinsic  value,  yes,  an  in- 
trinsic sanctity. 

Symbols  are  thus  signs  pointing  to  a  reality  be- 
yond themselves.    They  are  index  fingers  pointing 

170 


Syiiihdls  and  Ritc^ 


to  great  truths  and  ideals  of  which  we  should  al- 
ways be  conscious.  They  ever  keep  these  realities 
before  our  eyes,  so  that  we  may  always  be  mindful 
of  them  and  allow  them  to  influence  our  actions  and 
our  lives.  All  human  institutions  recognize  the 
value  of  these  symbols  and  make  constant  use  of 
them.  The  family,  the  state,  all  military  and  civil 
organizations  of  society  employ  symbols,  in  one 
form  or  another,  to  emphasize  and  keep  ever  green 
the  memory  of  the  ideas  that  each  wishes  to  pre- 
serve and  to  foster.  It  is  a  tacit  admission  of  our 
weakness,  of  our  inability  to  retain  abstractions  for 
any  length  of  time,  and  of  our  need  for  concrete 
reminders  which  should  help  to  preserve  certain 
truths  and  cause  them  to  exert  an  active  influence 
on  our  lives. 

Religious  Symbols. — Religious  beliefs  and  Ideas 
pertaining  as  they  do  to  the  relations  between  man 
and  God  (the  most  abstract  of  all  relationships) 
must  rely  on  symbols  and  signs  even  to  a  greater 
extent  than  purely  human  institutions  and  relations. 
No  matter  how  cultured  and  wise  we  may  be,  with 
whatever  readiness  and  ease  we  may  speak  of  such 
subjects  as  eternity  and  infinity,  we  are  neverthe- 
less unable  to  free  ourselves  entirely  from  the  mate- 
rial, and  are,  therefore,  unable  to  dispense  with  the 
material.  Our  religious  sense  may  be  ever  so  highly 
developed,  it  still  needs  frequent  suggestions  and 
reminders  to  keep  the  religious  truths  ever  before 
us.  If  patriotism  still  needs  the  symbol  of  the  flag 
to  keep  it  alive ;  if  nuptial  relationship  still  needs 
the  reminder  of  the  ring  to  rouse  the  emotions  of 
love  and  fidelity ;  if  devotion  to  a  cause  still  re- 
quires the  suggestion  of  a  pin  or  a  charm  to  fan  our 
enthusiasm  for  it  and  keep  ablaze  our  devotion  to 

171 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jczvish  Religion 


it;  God  and  holiness,  more  abstract  and  more  re- 
moved from  the  ordinary  daily  routine  of  life,  cer- 
tainly need  concrete  and  tangible  reminders  in  order 
to  become  deciding  factors  in  life.  The  voice  of 
conscience  may  become  hushed  by  the  din  and 
clamor  of  the  w^orld  around  us ;  ''the  beauty  of  holi- 
ness" may  become  blurred  and  dimmed  because  of 
the  glare  and  dazzle  of  worldly  allurements;  the 
call  of  duty  and  of  God  may  remain  unheeded,  un- 
less we  are  constantly  kept  conscious  of  these  by 
some  concrete  emblem  or  symbol. 

Judaism  recognized  this  truth  and  provided  signs 
and  symbols  to  serve  as  reminders  of  the  great 
ideals  and  principles  it  wished  us  to  adopt  and  fol- 
low. These  symbols,  whatever  their  origin  and 
primitive  significance,  having  served  for  so  many 
centuries  to  represent  religious  ideas  and  sacred 
relationships,  have  themselves  become  pregnant 
with  meaning  for  us,  not  only  because  of  the  ideas 
that  they  are  intended  to  suggest,  but  also  because 
of  the  holy  associations  which  they  have  gathered 
around  themselves  in  the  course  of  time.  They  are 
guiding  posts  to  eternal  realities.  They  are  the  in- 
spirers  to  noble  ideals  which  we  cherish.  Having 
served  the  cause  of  holiness  and  of  duty  for  so  many 
centuries  to  our  ancestors,  the  Jewish  symbols  have 
endeared  themselves  to  us  and  have  assumed  in- 
trinsic value  and  importance. 

In  this  spirit  we  take  up  the  consideration  of 
several  of  the  leading  symbols  which  have  enjoyed 
universal  acceptance  among  Jews  for  many  cen- 
turies. There  are  many  other  symbols  and  rites 
connected  with  the  great  crises  in  life,  as  birth, 
marriage  and  death,  Avhich  need  not,  however,  be 
explained  to  children,  although  the  teacher  should 
know  all  these  and  be  familiar  with  the  manner  of 

172 


Symbols  and  Rites 


their  observance  (see  Appendix  to  this  book;  also 
Dr.  Rosenau's  "J^^vish  Ceremonial  Institutions  and 
Customs"  will  be  very  helpful  in  such  a  study;  cf. 
also  Friedlander,"  "The  Jewish  Religion,"  pp.  467- 
496,  and  the  Jewish  Encyclopedia).  In  presenting 
the  lesson  to  children,  the  teacher  should  exhibit 
the  symbols,  such  as  Tallit,  Tefillin,  Mezuzah, 
which  will  be  helpful  to  a  better  comprehension  of 
the  subject. 

Zizit. — The  Commandment  to  wear  fringes  (Zizit) 
on  the  four  corners  of  the  garment  (Deuteronomy 
22:12),  is  amplified  in  another  place  by  the  follow- 
ing explanatory  remark :  **That  ye  may  look  upon 
it,  and  remember  all  the  commandments  of  the 
Lord,  and  do  them ;  and  that  ye  go  not  about  after 
(the  inclination  of)  your  own  heart  and  (the  de- 
light of)  your  own  eyes,  in  pursuance  of  which 
ye  used  to  go  astray;  that  ye  may  remember  and 
do  all  My  commandments,  and  be  holy  unto  your 
God."  (Numbers  15:37-41.)  The  symbol  of  Zizit 
is  thus  intended  to  serve  as  a  reminder  to  the  Jew 
of  the  very  purpose  of  his  existence — to  be  a  holy 
nation  unto  his  God.  By  observing  this  command- 
ment faithfully,  we  shall  be  led  to  do  all  the  com- 
mandments of  the  Lord  and  we  shall  be  protected 
against  temptation.  It  points  to  sanctification — the 
final  aim  of  life,  and  also  suggests  the  best  means 
of  obtaining  that  aim — viz.,  the  observance  of  God's 
laws  and  precepts. 

While  the  commandment  itself  is  not  now  ob- 
served literally,  the  fringes  are  still  worn  by  observ- 
ant Jews  on  a  special  garment  beneath  their  upper 
garments.  Here  the  teacher  may  show  these  sym- 
bols, while  explaining  as  follows:  This  small  gar- 
ment   is    called    Tallit    Katan    (small    garment)    or 

173 


Methods  of  Tcaciing  the  Jewish  Religion 

Arba'  Kanfot  (Four  corners).  A  larger  garment 
(Tallit)  of  a  similar  kind  is  also  worn  over  all  other 
garments  during  the  morning  service.  These  gar- 
ments are  provided  with  fringes  on  each  of  their 
four  corners.  Each  fringe  consists  of  four  long 
threads,  drawn  through  a  small  hole  at  the  corner 
with  both  ends  tied  together  by  a  double  knot.  One 
of  the  threads  (Shammash-servant),  much  longer 
than  the  others,  is  then  wound  about  the  others 
seven,  eight,  eleven  and  thirteen  times,  a  double 
knot  being  made  after  each  set  of  windings.  Thus, 
each  fringe  presents  four  sections,  separated  by- 
double  knots,  and  consists  of  eight  half  threads 
made  by  doubling  the  original  four  threads. 

According  to  the  Biblical  injunction  (Numbers 
15:  38),  one  of  the  threads  should  be  of  purple-blue 
wool  (Techelet).  This,  however,  is  no  more  re- 
quired, because  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  par- 
ticular shade  of  blue.    The  threads  are  usually  white. 

When  putting  on  the  small  Tallit,  a  blessing  is 
pronounced,  concluding  with  the  words  **concern- 
ing  the  commandment  of  Zizit."  When  the  large 
Tallit  is  put  on,  the  blessing  to  be  said  concludes 
with  the  words  "to  wrap  ourselves  with  a  fringed 
garment."  (Friedlander,  1.  c,  pp.  329-331 ;  Rosenau, 
1.  c,  pp.  59-65;  Dembitz,!.  c,  pp.  312-3;  Jewish  En- 
cyclopedia, s.  v.  Fringes.) 

Tefillin. — A  set  of  Tefillin  should  be  in  the  hands 
of.  the  teacher  and  shown  to  the  pupils  while  the 
following  explanation  is  made : 

The  term  "tefillin"  to  designate  the  phylacteries, 
worn  on  the  left  arm  and  forehead  during  prayer, 
is  of  late  origin  and  has  reference  *  to  the  fact 
that  the  time  of  wearing  them  was  later  re- 
stricted to  the  period  of  prayer  (tefillah-prayer).    In 

174 


Symbols  and  Rites 


the  Bible,  no  special  name  is  given  to  the  phy  ac- 
teries  They  are  spoken  of  as  a  sign,  a  memorial  or 
simply  as  frontlets,  i.e.,  fillets  or  head-garments 
(totafot).  The  commandment  regarding  tefillin  is 
repeated  four  times  in  the  Torah  (Kxodus  13:  9,  16, 
Deuteronomy  4:  8;  11 :  18)  and  their  purpose  is  in- 
dicated to  be  a  reminder  of  our  duty  to  study  God  s 
law  and  obey  it,  that  we  should  always  be  mindful 
of  God  as  the  Redeemer  of  Israel  and  follow  the 
statutes  and  laws  which  He  commanded  us.  A  more 
poetic  interpretation  of  the  purpose  of  this  symbol 
is  o-iven  by  the  Rabbis,  who  say  that  the  tefillin 
woni  on  the  head  and  on  the  left  arm,  which  presses 
on  the  heart,  indicate  that  our  thoughts  and  our 
emotions,  our  intellects  and  our  feelings  should  ever 
be  devoted  to  the  service  of  God.  (Cf.  Proverbs  1  . 9 
and  4:9:  "An  ornament  of  grace  to  thy  head  and 
as  a  jewel  about  thy  neck.")  .^^      .      .  ^ 

The  tefillin  consist  of  two  boxes  (Battim-houses) 
made  of  parchment,  each  of  which  is  provided  with 
a  long  leather  strap  (Rezu'ah)  One  of  these  is 
worn  above  the  forehead  (Tefillah  shel  Rosh)  fas- 
tened on  the  back  of  the  head  by  a  knot,  the  ends  of 
the  strap  falling  down  in  front.  The  other  is  placed 
on  the  left  arm  (Tefillah  shel  Yad),  also  fastened  by 
a  knot  and  the  strap  is  then  wound  about  the  arm 
seven  times,  and  about  the  middle  finger  of  the  hand. 
The  former  (placed  on  the  brow)  contains  four  com- 
partments, in  each  of  which  is  deposited  a  strip  ot 
parchment  with  one  of  the  following  four  sections 
written  on  it:  Exodus  13:1-10;  11:16;  Deuteron- 
omy 6:4-9;  11:13-20.  The  latter  (on  the  upper 
left  arm)  contains  only  one  compartment,  into  which 
is  deposited  a  long  strip  of  parchment  with  all  the 
above  sections  written  on  it.  ,    ,      , 

Originally,  the  tefillin  were  worn  the  whole  day. 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 


At  present,  however,  the  custom  is  to  wear  them 
only  during  the  morning  service  of  the  week-days. 
On  Sabbaths  and  holidays  the  tefilHn  are  not  worn, 
since  these  days  are  in  themselves  regarded  as  a 
symbol  of  the  covenant  between  God  and  Israel. 
The  Tefillah  shel  Yad  is  first  placed  on  the  arm, 
while  the  blessing  concluding  with  the  words  *'to 
lay  tefillin"  is  recited.  Then  the  Tefillah  shel  Rosh 
is  fastened  to  the  forehead  and  another  blessing,  con- 
cluding with  the  words  ''concerning  the  command- 
ment of  tefilHn,"  is  said.  The  reverse  order  is  fol- 
lowed when  the  tefillin  are  taken  off. 

According  to  Jewish  law,  a  boy  attains  his  re- 
ligious majority  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  when  he 
becomes  a  member  of  the  Jewish  community  (Bar 
Mizwah — Son  of  the  Commandment),  obliged  to  fol- 
low the  customs  and  institutions  of  Judaism.  From 
this  day  on,  he  is  held  responsible  for  his  actions. 
On  the  Sabbath  succeeding  his  thirteenth  birthday, 
the  boy  is  called  up  to  the  reading  of  the  Torah  in 
the  synagogue  and  is  often  permitted  to  read  the 
section  as  well  as  the  Haftarah.  The  occasion  is 
frequently  marked  by  a  feast  prepared  for  the  boy 
by  his  parents,  when  the  boy  is  taught  to  deliver  an 
appropriate  address.  The  wearing  of  tefillin  is  made 
compulsory  only  after  one  has  attained  his  religious 
majority.  Before  this  period  is  reached,  the  boy  is 
not  presumed  to  be  able  to  maintain  the  proper  de- 
gree of  earnestness  and  piety  of  mind  necessary 
for  the  observance  of  this  ceremony,  and  is  conse- 
quently exempted  from  wearing  Tefillin.  A  few 
weeks  before  his  thirteenth  birthday,  the  boy  is 
trained  in  the  manner  in  which  the  tefillin  should 
be  put  on  and  taught  all  the  laws  pertaining  thereto. 
(For  the  change  to  the  more  modern  form  of  Con- 
firmation, see  the  Chapter  on  Shabuot ;  comp.  Rose- 

176 


Syinbuls  and  Rites 


nau,  1.  c,  pp.  149-154;  Berkowitz,  "The  New  Educa- 
tion in  Religion,"  Lesson  VIII.) 

The  obligation  to  wear  tefillin  and  zizit  applies 
only  to  men  and  not  to  women.  This  is  due  to  the 
general  maxim  of  the  Jewish  law  that  women  are 
released  from  the  obligation  to  observe  all  positive 
commandments,  which  are  restricted  in  their  per- 
formances to  a  certain  definite  time.  The  reason  for 
this  is  obvious.  Religious  acts  which  must  be  per- 
formed at  a  certain  set  time  may  interfere  with  the 
homely  duties,  which  are  considered  to  be  the  pri- 
mary occupation  of  women,  or  with  their  physical 
nature,  hence  they  were  exempt  from  the  obligation 
of  performing  such  acts.  (Rosenau,  1.  c,  pp.  50-59; 
Dembitz,  1.  c,  pp.  312-317;  Friedlander,  1.  c,  pp. 
331-4,  338;  Jewish  Encyclopedia  s.  v.  Phylacteries.) 

Mezuzah.— Let  the  Mezuzah  be  seen  and  handled 
by  the  child  while  the  explanations  are  offered. 

The  mezuzah  (literally,  door-post)  is  a  tin  or  glass 
case  fixed  on  to  the  right  hand  door  post  of  the  outer 
entrance,  frequently  also  on  that  of  the  entrance  of 
every  room  of  a  Jewish  house.  The  case  contams 
a  strip  of  parchment  upon  which  are  inscribed  the 
first  two  sections  of  the  Shema'  (Deuteronomy  6: 
4-9;  11:13-20).  The  last  verses  in  each  of  these 
sections  contain  the  ordinance  regarding  the  mezu- 
zah. The  word  Shaddai  (Almighty),  written  on  the 
back  of  the  parchment,  is  made  visible  by  means  of 
a  small  opening  in  the  case.  Pious  Israelites,  on 
entering  a  room  or  on  leaving  it,  touch  the  mezuzah 
reverently  with  their  fingers  and  then  kiss  the  tips  of 
their  fingers,  as  a  mark  of  respect.  When  the  mezu- 
zah is  first  affixed,  a  benediction  is  recited. 

The  mezuzah  is  the  symbol  of  God's  watchful 
care  over  the  house  and  its  dwellers.     The  home 

177 


Methods  of  Teacliimj  iJic  Jcii'ish  Religion 

thus   becomes   sanctified    by    the    consciousness   of 
God's  continuous  presence  in  its  midst. 

The  Rabbis  say:  "He  who  has  tefiUin  upon  his 
head  and  upon  his  arm,  zizit  on  his  garments  and  a 
mezuzah  on  the  door  of  his  house,  is  safe  from  sin, 
since  he  has  many  reminders  of  his  duties.  These 
are  furthermore  the  angels  that  protect  him  from 
going  astray."  (Rosenau,  1.  c,  pp.  105-112;  Fried- 
lander,  1.  c,  pp.  335;  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  s.  v. 
Mezuzah.) 

The  Covenant  of  Abraham. — The  rite  of  circum- 
cision is  also  frequently  designated  as  the  Covenant 
of  Abraham,  since  it  was  to  Abraham  that  the  com- 
mandment was  first  given  (Genesis  17:  9-14,  re- 
peated in  Leviticus  12:3).  On  the  eighth  day  after 
his  birth,  every  male  child  is  to  undergo  the  opera- 
tion of  circumcision.  This  obligation  rests  upon  the 
father  of  the  child,  who  accordingly  recites  an  ap- 
propriate blessing  before  the  operation  is  performed. 
It  is  probable  that  at  one  time  the  operation  was 
performed  by  the  mother  (comp.  Exodus  4:25).  At 
present,  however,  the  operation  is  entrusted  only  to 
a  skilled  expert  (Mohel),  who  also  pronounces  a 
blessing.  After  the  operation  is  performed  the 
Mohel  reads  a  prayer  for  the  child,  in  which  the 
child  is  formally  named  for  the  first  time.  A  feast 
is  usually  served  to  all  the  assembled  guests.  In 
some  communities,  this  rite  is  performed  in  the  syna- 
gogue after  the  morning  service. 

Proselytes  who  wish  to  join  the  Jewish  com- 
munity also  undergo  the  operation  of  circumcision. 

The  rite  of  circumcision  is  the  symbol  of  the  cove- 
nant that  exists  between  Israel  and  God.  The 
covenant  made  by  God  with  Abraham  was  to  be  an 
everlasting  covenant,  by  which  the  descendants  of 

178 


Symbols  ami  Rites 


Abraham  become  distinguished  from  all  other  na- 
tions of  the  earth.  The  Jewish  infant  is  thus  initi- 
ated into  this  covenant  by  the  rite  of  circumcision, 
which  serves  as  a  constant  reminder  to  him  of  his 
descent  and  of  his  allegiance.  This  institution  has 
been  most  faithfully  observed  by  Jew^s  throughout 
all  the  centuries  of  their  existence.  They  braved 
dire  persecution  and  even  death  itself  rather  than 
forego  this  rite.  At  the  present  time,  even  such 
Jews  as  are  not  careful  about  the  observance  of 
many  another  Jewish  institution,  still  observe  this 
ceremony  most  carefully.  (Friedlander,  1.  c,  pp. 
336,  477-8;  Rosenau,  1.  c,  132-142.) 

Girls  are  first  named  in  the  synagogue,  when  the 
father  is  called  up  to  the  reading  of  a  section  of  the 
Law.  The  reader  then  recites  a  special  prayer  for 
the  new-born  girl,  mentioning  her  by  name,  and  for 
her  mother.  Some  defer  the  naming  of  a  girl  until 
the  mother  is  able  to  attend  synagogue  herself. 

(NOTE: — In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  con- 
sider another  ceremony.  It  is  "The  Redemption  of 
the  First-born."  The  ceremony  of  the  Redemption 
of  the  first-born  (Pidyon  ha-Ben)  has  its  origin  in 
the  commandment  contained  in  Exodus  13:13  and 
Numbers  18:16.  The  theory  was  that  the  first-born 
boy  should  be  devoted  to  the  service  of  God  and 
that  the  priests,  the  descendants  of  Aaron,  who 
were  selected  to  do  that  service,  were  acting  merely 
in  the  place  of  the  first-born.  In  order  to  free  the 
first-born  from  this  service,  it  is  necessary  that  he  be 
redeemed  and  the  redemption  money,  amounting  to 
five  shekels,  paid  over  to  the  Kohen  (priest).  This 
ceremony  is  observed  to  the  present  day  at  the  com- 
pletion of  the  first  thirty  days  of  the  life  of  the  first- 
born male  child.      (See   Singer   Prayer   Book,  pp. 

179 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

308-9  for  the  service  at  such  a  ceremony;  Rosenau, 
1.  c,  pp.  143-47.)  ' 

RESUME 

The  archeologist  or  ethnologist  may  indulge  in 
speculation  about  the  origin  of  certain  reHgious 
symbols  and  build  his  theories  upon  them.  Such 
investigations  are  extremely  interesting  and  may 
even  lead  to  valuable  discoveries  in  the  domain  of 
history  and  anthropology.  The  religious  teacher, 
however,  should  avoid  such  discussions  in  the  class- 
room, for  they  are  entirely  irrelevant  to  the  present 
observance  of  such  symbols  and  ceremonies.  What 
concerns  him  mostly  is  what  a  certain  symbol 
meant  and  still  means  to  the  great  majority  of  the 
Jews.  He  should  know  and  explain  the  relative  po- 
sition of  the  symbol  in  the  practice  of  Judaism,  the 
influence  it  exerted  upon  Jews  of  all  times  and  the 
reverence  in  which  it  is  held  today.  Jewish  symbols, 
while  in  the  main  conventional  (as  most  other  sym- 
bols are),  always  suggested  certain  important  ideas 
to  our  people,  ideas  which  we  of  today  also  cherish 
and  wish  to  preserve.  These  ideas  have  in  the 
course  of  time  become  so  intimately  associated  and 
bound  up  with  concrete  symbols  that  the  separation 
between  them  may  do  injury  to  the  preservation  of 
the  ideas  and  to  the  influence  they  are  supposed  to 
exert  on  our  lives  and  habits. 

There  is  also  the  filial  sentiment  that  should  not 
be  overlooked  in  dealing  with  symbols.  A  practice 
followed  by  a  certain  family  or  group  for  many  cen- 
turies assumes  added  value  and  significance  to  the 
members  of  that  group,  by  the  very  reason  of  its 
becoming  part  of  their  lives.  Such  a  practice  be- 
comes in  itself  of  importance  and  helps  greatly  in 

180 


Symbols  and  Rites 


the    preservation    of   the    separate    identity   of    the 
people  that  observe  it. 

The  four  institutions  of  Judaism  usually  classed 
as  symbols  are :  Zizit,  Tefillin,  Mezuzah  and  the 
Abrahamic  Covenant.  All  of  these  are  suggestive 
of  high  ideals  and  noble  truths  that  lie  at  the  very 
foundation  of  the  Jewish  religion.  Besides  this, 
they  are  also  important  aids  in  maintaining  the  sepa- 
rateness  of  the  Jews  and  their  distinct  mission. 
They  emphasize  the  ideals  of  holiness  and  purity, 
of  the  part  of  the  divine  in  human  affairs,  of  ''the 
beauty  of  holiness"  and  the  means  of  attaining  to 
it.  Having  been  observed  by  Jews  for  so  many 
centuries  and  having  been  associated  in  their  minds 
with  these  exalted  truths  all  the  time,  they  have 
gathered  additional  importance — aye,  additional 
sanctity,  because  they  are  part  of  our  patrimony  and 
thereby  keep  us  ever  cognizant  of  our  nature  and 
our  destiny.  By  their  observance,  we  become  dis- 
tinguished as  Jews  and  reminded  of  our  duty  to 
preserve  our  individuality  and  distinctive  character. 
Another  institution  that  is  intended  primarily  to 
preserve  Jewish  separatism  will  be  discussed  in  the 
next  chapter. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Explain  the  purpose  of  a  symbol  and  its 
value.    Give  examples  from  ordinary  life. 

2.  Why  does  religion,  more  than  other  institu- 
tions, need  symbols? 

3.  What  double  value  has  every  Jewish  symbol? 
Illustrate. 

4.  Define  Zizit,  giving  details.  \\'hat  is  its  pur- 
pose? 

181 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

5.  Give  the  purpose  of  Tefillin.  Describe  the 
Tefillin  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  worn. 

6.  What  is  a  Mezuzah?  Describe  and  give  its 
purpose. 

7.  What  commandments  are  not  obligatory  upon 
women  ?    Why  ? 

8.  What  is  Bar  Mizwah?  Why  do  we  associate 
Tefillin  with  the  Bar  Mizwah? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  the  Abrahamic  Covenant? 
Why  is  it  so  called?  Describe  the  ceremony  attend- 
ing it. 

10.  What  is  the  reason  for  the  ceremony  of  the 
Redemption  of  the  First-born? 


182 


XIV.    THE  DIETARY  LAWS— JEWISH 
SEPARATISM 

The  Purpose. — While  hoHness,  implying  both' con- 
secration and  racial  distinctiveness,  is  the  purpose 
of  many  of  the  ceremonial  institutions  of  Judaism,  it 
is  especially  and  repeatedly  emphasized  in  connec- 
tion with  the  dietary  laws.  "And  ye  shall  be  holy 
unto  Me;  for  I  the  Lord  am  holy,  and  have  set  you 
apart  from  the  people,  and  ye  should  be  Mine." 
(Leviticus  20:26.)  This  is  the  reason  given  for  the 
numerous  enactments  regarding  food  found  in  the 
Bible,  whatever  other  purposes  may  have  been 
served  by  several  individual  provisions  of  these 
laws. 

The  danger  of  becoming  assimilated  and  ab- 
sorbed by  the  great  majority  was  felt  even  when  the 
Jews  still  maintained  a  separate  poHtical  existence 
and  were  isolated  in  a  state  of  their  own.  It  was 
even  foreseen  at  the  very  threshold  of  our  history, 
when  Abraham  insisted  that  his  son  marry  only  in 
his  own  family  (Genesis  24:  3,  8),  and  when  Rebek- 
kah  sent  Jacob  to  her  own  folks  to  find  a  wife  for 
himself  (lb.  27:  46;  28:  1-9).  Since  then  the  appre- 
hension of  becoming  lost  in  the  world  has  served 
as  a  stimulus  to  many  enactments,  was  the  theme 
of  many  an  impassioned  prophecy  and  proved  the 
cause  of  many  of  the  laws  and  provisions  of  the 
Rabbis.  If  we  would  remain  loyal  to  our  tradi- 
tions, faithful  to  the  sacred  trust  imposed  upon  us, 
and  prepared  to  carry  on  God's  work  in  the  world, 
we  must  keep  ourselves  distinct  and  separate  from 

183 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

all  other  peoples.  Israel  among  the  nations  has  been 
able  to  maintain  himself  and  to  preserve  his  identity 
during  all  these  centuries  mainly  because  of  these 
laws  and  regulations  by  which  his  identity  was  safe- 
guarded. 

There  is  nothing  more  conducive  to  intimacy 
among  people  than  a  common  table.  By  eating  and 
drinking  together,  the  conventional  restraints  be- 
come relaxed,  familiarity  is  promoted  and  close 
friendships  may  be  the  result.  In  the  phraseology  of 
the  Rabbis,  "we  should  not  eat  their  bread  because 
we  may  be  led  thereby  to  drink  their  wine ;  we 
should  not  drink  their  wine  because  we  may  be  led 
thereby  to  intermarry  with  them  and  intermarriage 
will  lead  us  to  serve  their  gods."  In  obeying  the 
dietary  laws,  the  Jew  made  himself  immune  from 
the  dangers  of  assimilation;  because  of  their  con- 
stant application  in  life,  he  was  kept  mindful  of  his 
distinctive  nature  and  destiny.  With  his  keenly  de- 
veloped instinct  of  self-preservation,  the  Jew  al- 
ways observed  these  laws  zealously  and  adhered  to 
them  most  rigidly,  feeling  their  tremendous  in- 
fluence on  his  life,  on  his  survival  as  a  distinct 
people. 

The  separateness  of  Israel,  however,  is  not  meant 
to  be  an  end  in  itself.  Israel  is  to  be  preserved  as  a 
distinct  people  because  of  the  ideals  it  fosters,  be- 
cause of  its  attitude  to  the  eternal  realities  of  life, 
because  it  has  an  important  function  in  the  world. 
It  is  conceivable  to  have  an  entirely  secular  Jewish 
nation,  established  in  Palestine  or  elsewhere,  work- 
ing out  its  destinies  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
nations  do.  Such  a  survival,  however,  will  not  serve 
God's  purpose  for  Israel,  the  purpose  expressed  in 
the  revelation  handed  down  to  us  and  in  the  course 
of  our  history.    Israel  is  to  be  preserved  as  the  holy 

184 


2^ he  Dietary  Laws 


people,  as  the  people  consecrated  to  the  service  of 
the  highest  religious  and  ethical  ideals,  as  the  ban- 
ner-bearer of  the  great  truths  which  it  has  so  jeal- 
ously preserved  throughout  the  many  generations 
of  its  history.  This  peculiar  nature  of  Israel,  this 
exalted  destiny  of  our  people  is  also  served  by  the 
numerous  regulations  regarding  food  prescribed  by 
our  religion.  By  abstaining  from  certain  kinds  of 
food,  WQ  emphasize  the  spiritual  and  the  divine  that 
is  within  us.  By  suppressing  sensuous  desires  and 
appetites,  we  give  prominence  to  the  idea  of  the 
sacredness  of  life.  In  partaking  of  food,  intended  to 
sustain  our  physical  selves,  we  are  reminded  by 
these  laws  and  regulations  that,  the  physical  is  only 
important  in  so  far  as  the  spirit  is  maintained 
thereby,  that  even  then  our  thoughts  must  not  be 
diverted  from  the  real  aim  of  life — the  consecration 
of  self.  The  self-abnegation  demanded  of  the  Jew 
by  these  injunctions,  making  him  feel  distinct  and 
different  from  all  other  peoples,  at  the  same  time  em- 
phasized to  him  the  purpose  for  which  he  is  to  be 
different.  Thus  through  obedience  to  the  dietary 
laws  we  help  to  maintain  our  personal  holiness  and 
our  racial  distinctiveness,  the  two  ideas  contained 
in  the  Hebrew  term  ''Kadosh,"  the  express  purpose 
of  all  these  regulations. 

Effects  of  Their  Observance. — The  effects  of 
the  observance  of  these  dietary  laws  both  upon  the 
physical  and  moral  nature  of  the  Jewish  people 
have  been  recognized  by  all  students  of  history. 
Moderation  in  food,  the  ability  to  suppress  the  crav- 
ing for  certain  things,  the  submission  to  the  numer- 
ous restrictions  for  the  sake  of  a  high  ideal,  could 
not  but  influence  character,  develop  self-control  and 
harden  the  powers  of  endurance.     Laws   that  bid 

185 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

self-mastery  and  demand  curbing  of  sensuous  de- 
sires for  the  sake  of  duty  and  in  obedience  to  the 
divine  will,  must  exert  a  tremendous  influence  on  a 
people  that  has  observed  them  for  many  centuries. 
The  moral  fibre  becomes  toughened,  and  the  power 
of  adaptability  to  all  kinds  of  conditions  and  cir- 
cumstances becomes  developed,  through  the  rigor- 
ous discipline  which  these  laws  impose. 

Many  of  these  laws  also  tend  towards  developing 
the  finer  traits  of  tenderness  and  kindness  to  all  of 
God's  creatures.  Cruelty  to  animals  was  regarded 
with  horror  by  the  Jews  of  all  generations,  and  many 
of  the  injunctions  in  the  Bible  and  the  sayings  of 
the  Rabbis  enjoin  consideration  for  the  lower  crea- 
tures. Several  of  the  dietary  laws  obviously  aim  at 
sparing  the  animal  any  unnecessary  pain  or  discom- 
fort. Many  modern  scientists  have  repeatedly  de- 
clared the  Jewish  mode  of  slaughtering  animals  to 
be  the  most  humane.  (Read  Joseph,  "Judaism  as 
Creed  and  Life,"  pp.  354-359;  Richman  &  Lehman, 
^'Methods  of  Teaching  Jewish  Ethics,"  pp.  213-230; 
Dembo,  "The  Jewish  Method  of  Slaughtering  Ani- 
mals" ;  Jewish  Encyclopedia  s.  v.  "Cruelty  to  Ani- 
mals.") It  may  be  advisable  for  the  teacher  to 
elaborate  upon  this  theme  in  this  connection. 

It  has  also  frequently  been  demonstrated  that  the 
observance  of  the  dietary  laws  by  the  Jews  con- 
tributed greatly  to  their  physical  efficiency  and 
health.  Many  of  the  forbidden  things  are  unhealth- 
ful  and  are  regarded  as  injurious  to  health  also  by 
modern  science.  The  fact  that  the  Jews  are  immune 
from  certain  diseases  and  enjoy  a  longer  life  has 
also  been  explained  as  the  result  of  their  adherence 
to  these  laws.  It  is  not  impossible  that  some  of 
these  laws  were  enjoined  because  of  their  hygienic 
value.    Still,  we  must  be  careful  not  to  confuse  this 

186 


The  Dietary  Lazes 


secondary  object  with  the  general  purpose  of  these 
laws,  which  is  explicitly  given  to  be  the  consecra- 
tion of  the  Jewish  people. 

In  the  following  paragraphs,  the  general  divisions 
of  the  subject  only  are  given.  The  teacher  is  ex- 
pected to  familiarize  himself  with  the  details  of  the 
law  as  presented  in  other  sources.  In  the  Jewish 
Encyclopedia,  besides  the  general  article  on  Dietary 
Laws,  there  will  be  found  special  articles  on  all  of 
the  more  important  divisions  of  the  law,  under  their 
respective  headings. 

Vegetable  and  Animal  Food. — No  restriction  is 
placed  in  the  Bible  on  vegetable  products  and  on 
fruit  (Genesis  1:  29).  The  laws  regulating  the  en- 
joyment of  vegetable  food,  found  in  the  Bible 
('Orlah:  Leviticus  19:23-25;  Hadash:  ib.,  23:9-14; 
Kilaim:  ib.,  19:19;  Deuteronomy  22:9,  comp.  ib., 
22:  10-11)  obviously  belong  to  the  regulations  per- 
taining to  the  Temple  service  (comp.  Exodus  23 : 

19)- 

Among  the  ancient  Israelites,  animal  food  was 
regarded  as  a  luxury.  In  which  the  rich  only  might 
indulge.  From  the  permission  given  to  Noah  and 
his  children  after  the  flood  (Genesis  9:  2,  3),  it 
seems  that  the  general  feeling  w^as  against  eating 
animal  food.  This  feeling  may  have  been  the  basis 
for  the  system  of  sacrifices.  Certain  animals  w^ere 
regarded  as  repulsive  and  were  considered  an 
"abomination"  (Leviticus  11:8;  Deuteronomy  14: 
3).  The  distinction  between  clean  and  unclean  ani- 
mals is  found  early  in  the  Bible  (Genesis  7:  2,  8), 
although  definite  provision  for  this  distinction  Is  not 
made  until  later,  in  the  legislative  portion  (Leviticus 
11 ;  Deuteronomy  14:  3-21). 

18/ 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

Clean  and  Unclean  Animals. — Of  mammals,  only- 
ten  groups  are  mentioned  as  permitted  for  food,  the 
general  rule  being  ''whatsoever  parteth  the  hoof, 
and  is  wholly  cloven-footed,  and  cheweth  the  cud, 
among  the  beasts,  that  ye  may  eat."  The  unclean 
birds  are  enumerated  in  two  almost  identical  lists 
in  Leviticus  and  Deuteronomy.  While  no  general 
mark  of  recognition  is  given  in  the  Bible,  the  Rabbis 
have  laid  down  certain  signs  by  which  the  unclean 
birds  might  be  distinguished.  In  both  birds  and 
mammals,  it  is  generally  the  beast  or  bird  of  prey 
that  is  prohibited,  although  not  all  the  domestic 
animals  are  permitted.  Fishes  that  have  fins  and 
scales  are  clean,  others  are  not.  All  insects,  with 
the  exception  of  four  kinds  of  locusts,  are  forbidden. 
All  "creeping  things,"  including  all  kinds  of  worms 
as  well  as  the  valved  animals,  such  as  oysters, 
clams  and  crabs  and  other  Crustacea,  are  likewise 
forbidden. 

All  products  derived  from  the  unclean  animals 
are  forbidden,  as  are  the  animals  themselves.  The 
milk  of  unclean  mammals,  the  eggs  of  unclean  birds 
and  the  roe  of  unclean  fishes  should  not  be  used  as 
food.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  the  per- 
mission to  use  the  honey  produced  by  bees,  since 
this  was  considered  as  the  juice  of  the  flowers 
sucked  by  the  bee  and  again  discharged  and  con- 
taining no  portion  of  the  insect  itself. 

Shehitah. — The  clean  animal  could  be  used  for 
food  only  after  it  was  killed  in  accordance  with  a 
prescribed  form,  which  is  called  Shehitah.  To  cut 
ofif  a  limb  from  a  living  animal  and  eat  it,  was  looked 
upon  with  horror  by  the  Israelites  (comp.  Genesis 
9:4),  and  the  Rabbis  included  this  prohibition 
among  the  laws  that  are  obligatory  on  all  mankind 

188 


The  Dietary  Lazvs 


(the  descendants  of  Noah).  Though  not  definitely 
prescribed  in  the  Bible,  the  specific  laws  governing 
the  method  of  slaughtering  animals  for  food  are 
probably  of  remote  antiquity  (Deuteronomy  12  :  21) 

The  slaughtering  of  animals  should  be  entrusted 
only  to  a  person  who  is  familiar  with  the  law  and 
skilled  in  his  work  (Shohet).  The  knife  must  be  of 
a  certain  prescribed  length  and  must  be  very  sharp 
and  have  no  perceptible  notch.  Before  slaughtering 
tne  knife  must  be  carefully  examined,  both  as  to  its 
dullness  and  coarseness.  This  is  obviously  intended 
to  avoid  any  unnecessary  pain  to  the  animal.  A 
special  blessing  is  to  be  pronounced  by  the  Shohet 
before  slaughtering.  The  slaughtering  itself  con- 
sists of  cutting  through  most  of  the  windpipe  and' of 
the  gullet.  This  has  to  be  accomplished  without 
the  slightest  delay  and  with  the  utmost  skill. 

The  laws  of  Shehitah  apply  only  to  mammals  and 
to  birds.  Fishes  and  locusts  need  not  be  killed  in 
any  prescribed  form,  although  these  also  should  not 
be  eaten  while  they  are  still  alive.  In  the  case  of 
birds  and  the  permitted  wild  mammals,  the  blood 
that  comes  forth  through  the  Shehitah  has  to  be 
covered  with  earth  or  with  ashes  (Leviticus  17:  13), 
when  another  blessing  is  pronounced. 

The  law  prohibits  the  slaughtering  of  an  animal 
and  Its  young  on  the  same  day  (ib.  22 :  28 ;  comp 
Deuteronomy  22:  6,  7).  This  prohibition  is  ap- 
parently enjoined  because  of  the  cruelty  involved  in 
such  an  act. 

Terefah.— An    animal    that    was    found    to   have 
suffered  from  a  mortal  disease,  even  though  it  was 
killed  in  the  prescribed  manner,  may  not  be  used  for 
food.    Such  an  animal  was  called  Terefah  (literally 
"torn  by  beasts,"  Exodus  22:  30),  while  the  animal 

189 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jcivish  Religion 

that  met  its  death  in  any  other  way  than  that  of 
proper  Shehitah  was  called  Nebelah  (Deuteronomy 
14:21).  The  Rabbis  have  elaborated  a  whole  sys- 
tem of  laws,  which  determine  the  diseases  fatal  to 
animals  and  thus  make  them  unfit  for  food. 

After  Shehitah,  however,  it  is  presumed  that  the 
animal  is  permitted  as  food  (Kasher — ritually  fit) 
and  it  is  therefore  not  necessary  to  examine  the  ani- 
mal to  ascertain  whether  or  not  it  had  suffered 
from  a  disease.  The  only  organ  that  must  be 
thoroughly  examined  is  the  lungs,  because  there 
disease  is  frequent.  This  examination  (Bedikah) 
should  be  performed  by  an  expert  Shohet,  who  is 
versed  in  all  the  laws  of  Terefah.  Birds,  however, 
need  not  undergo  that  examination,  because  in  them 
lung  disease  is  scarce. 

Blood,  Fat  and  "The  Sinew  That  Shrank."— Blood 
is  repeatedly  prohibited  in  the  Bible  (Leviticus  17: 
10-11 ;  Deuteronomy  12:16,  et  al.).  The  meat,  there- 
fore, has  to  be  free  from  blood  before  it  can  be  eaten. 
In  preparing  meat  for  cooking,  the  following  process 
is  followed :  The  meat  is  first  soaked  in  water  for 
half  an  hour,  then  it  is  kept  covered  with  salt  for 
an  hour.  The  meat  is  then  rinsed  and  the  salt  re- 
moved, after  which  it  may  be  cooked.  The  prohibi- 
tion applies  only  to  the  blood  of  mammals  or  birds, 
not  to  the  blood  of  fishes  or  locusts. 

That  part  of  the  fat  of  animals  which,  in  the 
case  of  sacrifices,  was  burnt  upon  the  altar  (Le- 
viticus 3:  3,  4)  is  forbidden  as  food  (ib.  7:  23-25). 
All  other  fat  found  in  the  animal  or  any  fat  of  birds 
or  permitted  wild  animals  may  be  eaten. 

The  incident  of  Jacob's  wrestHng  with  the  angel, 
which  caused  the  patriarch's  lameness,  gave  rise, 
according  to  the  Biblical  version,  to  the  custom  of 

190 


TJic  Die  tar  \  Laws 


refraining  from  eating  the  sinews  of  the  hind  legs 
of  an  animal  (Genesis  32:33).  The  hind  quarters 
of  cattle  are  thus  forbidden  as  food,  unless  the 
sinews,  with  all  the  fat,  muscle  and  tissue  surround- 
ing them  have  been  carefully  removed.  This  re- 
quires great  skill  and  much  labor,  so  that  many 
butchers  would  rather  dispose  of  these  portions  as 
Terefah  than  take  the  trouble  to  remove  the  for- 
bidden parts. 

Meat  and  Milk. — The  thrice  repeated  prohibition 
against  "seething  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk"  (Exo- 
dus 23:  19;  34:  26;  Deuteronomy  14:  21)  was  inter- 
preted to  extend  to  all  mixtures  of  meat  and  milk 
food.  The  reason  for  this  law  is  not  given  in  the 
Bible,  although  from  the  context  we  infer  that  it 
was  probably  intended  to  serve  as  a  guard  against 
some  idolatrous  practices  of  the  time.  It  is  also 
possible  that  this  sentence  is  to  be  translated  *Thou 
shalt  not  seethe  a  kid  while  still  nursing,"  and  to 
be  considered  in  connection  with  the  humane  law, 
forbidding  the  separation  of  the  kid  from  the  dam 
(comp.  Deuteronomy  22:  6-7).  Jewish  tradition, 
however,  has  always  connected  this  verse  with  the 
widely  spread  custom  of  abstaining  from  eating 
meat  and  milk  at  the  same  time. 

This  law  has  been  most  rigidly  observed  by  Jews 
of  all  ages,  and  precautions  were  taken  against  the 
slightest  violation  of  it.  Not  only  was  the  mixture 
of  meat  and  milk-food  forbidden  as  food,  but  one 
must  derive  no  benefit  from  such  a  mixture  when 
cooked.  Even  the  taste  of  meat  in  milk  food,  or 
vice  versa,  is  forbidden,  so  that  if  some  milk  was 
spilt  into  a  dish  or  pot  with  meat,  or  vice  versa,  the 
whole  dish  and  its  contents  may  not  be  used,  if 
there  was  a  sufficient  quantity  in  the  admixture  to 

191 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

give  its  taste  to  the  food  into  which  it  fell,  or  if  the 
admixture  was  more  than  one-sixtieth  of  its  con- 
tents. In  every  observant  Jewish  household,  two 
sets  of  dishes  are  found — one  for  the  use  of  meat 
food,  and  the  other  for  the  use  of  milk  food.  After 
partaking  of  a  meal  at  which  meat  was  served,  it  is 
forbidden  to  eat  milk  food  until  a  certain  time  has 
elapsed  (usually  six  hours). 

Respect  for  Food. — Bread  is  the  staff  of  life  and 
is  regarded  as  the  direct  gift  from  God.  No  disre- 
spectful use,  therefore,  should  be  made  of  bread  or 
of  any  other  article  of  food.  The  crumbs  left  on 
the  tablecloth,  after  the  meal,  should  be  carefully 
gathered  and  not  thrown  on  the  floor,  where  people 
are  likely  to  tread  upon  them.  Only  such  articles 
of  food  as  are  not  spoiled  by  being  thrown  upon  the 
ground  may  be  cast  before  the  bridal  couple.  God's 
bounties  must  not  be  slighted. 

As  everything  else  in  life,  so  the  meal  was  re- 
garded as  a  religious  service.  To  wash  the  hands 
before  partaking  of  food  is  certainly  a  most  neces- 
sary hygienic  precaution.  With  the  Jews,  however, 
this  becomes  a  religious  law,  and  the  act  is  accom- 
panied with  a  special  benediction.  A'nother  blessing 
is  pronounced  before  breaking  bread  and  the  meal 
is  concluded  with  a  longer  prayer  (see  Chapter 
XII).  According  to  the  Rabbis,  the  dinner  table 
should  be  regarded  as  an  altar  and  the  meal  as  a  sac- 
rifice. The  conversation  at  table  should  be  of  a 
higher  tone,  dealing  with  religious  subjects  or  with 
study  of  the  Torah  (comp.  Pirke  Abot,  111  :4). 


192 


The  Dietary  Laws 


RESUME 

Just  as  the  priest  had  to  follow  a  special  regime 
of  life,  in  order  that  he  should  be  constantly  re- 
minded of  his  calling  and  functions,  so  also  the 
priest  among  nations,  ''the  kingdom  of  priests,"  has 
to  submit  to  a  rigorous  discipline  of  life,  by  which 
it  becomes  distinguished  from  all  other  peoples. 
The  dietary  laws  served  this  purpose  more  than  any 
other  ceremonial  law  of  Judaism.  Not  only  did  they 
help  to  preserve  the  identity  of  the  Jewish  people, 
living  in  the  midst  of  an  overwhelming  and  fre- 
quently hostile  majority,  but  they  also  helped  to 
emphasize  the  peculiar  nature  and  destiny  of  Israel. 
Holiness,  implying  both  separateness  and  consecra- 
tion to  the  divine,  is  the  dominating  principle  of 
Jewish  life.  This  is  safeguarded  by  a  large  number 
of  laws  and  institutions,  which  are  enjoined  in  the 
Bible  and  which  were  elaborated  in  the  course  of 
Jewish  history.  The  dietary  laws  form  one  of  the 
most  important  means  to  this  end  and  have  proved 
their  value  in  promoting  the  ideals  of  holiness  and 
separateness  among  the  Jews. 

Realizing  the  great  purpose  served  by  these  laws 
in  the  preservation  of  Israel  as  a  people  devoted  to 
God  and  consecrated  to  His  service,  the  Rabbis  sur- 
rounded them  with  numerous  "fences,"^  guarding 
most  zealously  against  any  possible  violation  of 
them,  and  Israel  willingly  and  gladly  submitted  to 
the  exacting  discipline  which  they  imposed.  They 
have  thus  assumed  additional  weight  through  the 
importance  attached  to  them  throughout  the  many 
generations  of  Israel's  life,  so  that  obedience  to 
them  served  as  the  symbol  of  attachment  to  the  na- 
tion of  Israel  and  to  the  God  of  Israel.  Next  to  the 
observance  of  the  Sabbath,  the  observance  of  the 

193 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

dietary  laws  has  become  the  distinguishing  mark 
of  the  Jew,  differentiating  him  from  all  other  peo- 
ples. Aside  from  all  other  considerations  of  obe- 
dience to  God's  law  and  the  adherence  to  His  com- 
mandments, the  Jew  who  indulges  in  forbidden 
food  has  effaced  one  of  the  most  important  signs 
that  distinguish  him  as  a  member  of  a  peculiar  peo- 
ple with  a  peculiar  mission. 

These  laws,  however,  also  possess  intrinsic  value, 
affecting  the  moral  and  physical  life  of  the  nation. 
These  results  are  matters  of  experience,  which  can 
be  demonstrated.  The  sobriety  of  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple, their  wonderful  powers  of  endurance,  their  abil- 
ity to  adapt  themselves  easily  to  new  and  difficult 
conditions  and  environments,  have  been  correctly 
ascribed  to  the  influence  exerted  by  these  laws, 
which  promote  the  powers  of  self-control  and  self- 
discipline.  Many  of  the  individual  provisions  of 
these  laws  also  tend  to  arouse  the  more  tender  emo- 
tions of  kindness  and  ^consideration  for  the  weak 
and  the  dependent,  and'to  check  all  kinds  of  cruelty. 
Modern  science,  also,  has  placed  itself  on  record  as 
approving  of  several  of  these  laws  on  the  grounds 
of  hygiene.  The  longevity  of  the  Jews  and  their 
immunity  to  some  diseases  have  been  attributed  to 
their  abstinence  from  certain  kinds  of  food  forbidden 
by  these  laws.  These  results  may  have  been  aimed 
at  in  the  selection  of  the  individual  provisions,  but 
they  are  not  the  main  object  of  these  laws.  The 
reason  for  the  dietary  laws  is  given  in  the  Bible, 
as  indicated  above,  and  all  other  reasons  are  merely 
subsidiary  to  it.  Holiness  is  their  aim,  not  physical 
health  or  moral  well-being,  although  these  are  at- 
tained through  them. 


194 


The  Dietary  Lazvs 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Is  Jewish  separatism  desirable  in  itself? 
What  main  object  does  it  serve? 

2.  Define  the  term  "holiness"  as  used  in  the 
Bible.    Explain  fully  the  two  ideas  it  suggests. 

3.  How  do  the  Dietary  Laws  promote  the  ideas 
contained  in  the  term  ''holiness"?    Illustrate. 

4.  What  other  purposes  are  served  by  several 
of  the  individual  provisions  of  these  laws? 

5.  Describe  the-  prohibitions  connected  with 
vegetable  food.  Are  these  included  in  the  Dietary 
Laws? 

6.  Give  a  brief  sketch  of  the  laws  regarding 
clean  and  unclean  animals. 

7.  Define  the  terms  Shehitah,  Terefah  and 
Nebelah.    Why  is  meat  salted  before  it  is  cooked  ? 

8.  The  prohibition  against  eating  a  mixture  of 
meat  and  milk  has  been  most  rigorously  observed 
among  Jews.  What  is  its  basis  in  the  Bible?  How 
has  it  been  observed  in  practice? 

9.  What  is  the  general  attitude  of  the  Jew 
toward  food?    How  is  the  meal  regarded? 


195 


XV.    THE  JEWISH  FAITH— GOD  AND  MAN 

The  Idea  of  God. — Children  need  not  be  taught 
about  the  existence  of  God.  This  is  taken  by  them 
for  granted,  and  any  attempt  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  to  "prove"  it  will  result  in  confusion  and 
doubt.  The  idea  of  God,  however  crude  and  hazy, 
is  inherent  in  the  soul  of  every  child.  It  should  be 
the  object  of  the  teacher  to  illumine  and  define  this 
idea,  to  strengthen  the  latent  emotions  of  the  heart 
and  direct  the  natural  yearnings  of  the  child's  soul. 
Assuming  the  certainty  of  the  exist»ence  of  God,  the 
child  should  be  led  to  recognize  the  hand  of  God 
in  the  wondrous  works  of  nature  and  in  the  still 
more  wonderful  events  of  human  history,  especially 
of  the  history  of  Israel.  The  indefinite  and  vague 
notion  of  a  God  will  assume  shape  and  become  preg- 
nant with  meaning,  when  the  consciousness  of  the 
child  is  directed  to  the  marvelous  works  of  nature, 
evidencing  everywhere  the  intelligence  and  power 
of  the  great  Mind  that  called  them  into  being  and 
gave  each  one  its  place  and  {unction  in  the  world. 
The  conviction  of  the  existence  of  God  will  receive 
added  strength  and  lucidity,  when  the  child's  mind 
is  directed  to  the  observation  of  the  numerous  ex- 
periences of  men  and  to  the  wonderful  course  of 
human  history.  We  see  wickedness  and  sin  end  in 
misery  and. ruin;  powerful  nations  wiped  out  of  ex- 
istence because  of  their  evil  deeds  and  weak  peoples 
preserved  because  of  their  adherence  to  virtue,  and 
we  are  strengthened  in  our  faith  in  a  just  and  wise 
Ruler  of  the  universe.  The  history  of  Israel  is  the 
most  powerful  testimony  to  the  great  truth  that 

196 


Jewish  Faith — God  and  Man 


there  is  a  God  Who  guides  the  destinies  of  men  and 
of  nations  with  wisdom  and  justice.  Every  inci- 
dent in  the  early  records  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  as 
preserved  in  the  Bible,  manifests  God's  providence, 
while  the  almost  miraculous  preservation  of  Israel 
in  the  Diaspora,  the  long  and  wearisome  exile,  can 
be  explained  on  no  other  grounds  but  on  those  of 
the  kind  guidance  and  vigilant  care  of  the  divine 
Ruler  of  nations.  Such  and  similar  ideas  might  ef- 
fectively be  elaborated  upon,  but  they  should  be 
presented  not  in  the  form  of  scientific  proofs  or  argu- 
ments, but  as  illustrations  of  the  conviction  already 
deeply  rooted  in  the  mind  of  the  child,  so  as  to  make 
it  clearer  and  more  abiding.  (See  "New  Education 
in  Religion,"  p.  79.) 

Attributes  of  God. — We  know  that  God  is,  but  ^ 
we  do  not  know  what  He  is.  When  Moses  wished 
to  be  initiated  into  the  mystery  of  God's  being  he 
was  told  that  it  was  impossible  for  man  to  see  God 
and  live.  *'Thou  shalt  see  My  back,  but  My  face 
shall  not  be  seen."  (Exodus  33:  17-23.)  Man  can 
perceive  God  only  as  He  manifests  Himself  through 
His  actions,  thrdugh  the  influence  which  He  exerts 
upon  nature  and  upon  history,  through  the  wonder- 
ful order  and  beauty  of  the  universe  which  He  cre- 
ated, but  God  Himself,  God  in  His  essence,  he  can- 
not see. 

Still,  the  very  idea  of  God,  of  which  we  are  con- 
scious, carries  with  it  certain  qualities  and  attributes. 
Unable  to  think  of  God  in  any  other  way  but  in  the 
light  of  our  knowledge  and  experience,  we  ascribe 
to  Him  the  perfection  of  all  the  power  and  wisdom 
which  are  manifested  in  our  personalities  and  in  the 
world  around  us.  As  the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  the 
Universe,  He  is  necessarily  greater  than  the  w^isest 

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and  strongest  of  His  creatures.  The  very  notion  of 
His  existence  precludes  the  possibility  of  any  defect 
or  weakness  in  Him.  He  is  free  from  all  change  or 
accident.  He  is  perfect  in  power  and  wisdom,  in 
justice  and  love,  unlimited  by  time  and  space,  un- 
affected by  the  changes  and  weaknesses  to  which 
material  beings  are  subject. 

These  ideas  about  the  nature  of  God,  which  form 
part  of  our  very  notion  of  His  existence,  also  have 
the  sanction  of  Revelation  and  of  tradition.  Philoso- 
phers may  have  differed  about  some  of  the  details 
in  the  list  of  God's  attributes,  but  the  more  impor- 
tant ideas  have  always  met  with  general  acceptance. 
It  is  mainly  in  the  interpretation  given  to  these 
various  attributes  which  are  ascribed  to  God  that 
the  difference  between  the  various  religious  creeds 
exists.  Guided  by  the  teachings  of  our  Bible  and 
by  the  interpretations  of  the  Rabbis  and  Sages  of 
Israel,  the  Jews  have  developed  these  ideas  about 
God  in  a  distinct  and  definite  manner  and  formu- 
lated them  in  a  set  of  doctrines  which  are  regarded 
essential  to  an  adherence  to  the  Jewish  faith.  These 
doctrines  or  dogmas  deal  mainly  with  our  concep- 
tion of  the  nature  of  God  and  His  relation  to  the 
world  and  to  man. 

For  the  difference  in  the  attitude  to  dogmas  be- 
tween Judaism  and  other  creeds,  see  the  Introduc- 
tion and  references  given  there. 

God  Is  One. — The  idea  of  God's  perfect  unity  has 
ever  been  regarded  the  most  distinctive  element  of 
the  Jewish  religion.  "Hear,  O  Israel,  the  Lord  our 
God,  the  Lord  is  one"  (Deuteronomy  6:  4),  has  been 
the  battle-cry  of  the  Jews  at  all  times.  God  is  per- 
fect, hence  self-sufficient  and  absolute.  He  does  not 
need  to  be  supplemented  by  other  powers,  since  this 

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Jewish  Faith — God  and  Man 


would  cast  reflection  on  His  absolute  perfection. 
The  belief  in  the  unity  of  God  excludes  not  only  the 
belief  in  any  other  power  besides  Him  as  God,  but 
also  the  possibility  of  viewing  Him  in  any  other 
light  than  that  of  strict  unity.  He  is  one  and  also 
indivisible.  To  believe  that  God  is  made  up  of 
several  personalities  is  to  debase  the  purity  of  the 
idea  of  God's  perfection.  He  is  one,  and  there  is 
no  other  God  besides  Him.  He  is  one  also  in  His 
unity,  not  composed  of  parts  or  persons. 

Three  times  daily  does  the  Jew  proclaim,  with  in- 
tensest  fervor,  his  belief  in  the  absolute  unity  of 
God.  Throughout  the  centuries  he  clung  to  this  be- 
lief with  might  and  main,  gave  up  his  life  willingly 
rather  than  abandon  it,  ascended  the  funeral  pyre 
with  resignation  and  confidence  in  God's  mercy, 
while  chanting  the  Shema',  thereby  throwing  defi- 
ance into  the  teeth  of  his  persecutors  and  oppressors. 
It  is  in  this  belief  especially. that  the  Jews  were  dis- 
tinguished from  all  ancient  creeds.  And  even  when 
others  have  adopted  this  principle,  as  did  Christian- 
ity and  Mohammedanism,  the  purity  of  the  belief 
still  remained  peculiar  to  Judaism.  The  other  mono- 
theistic religions  have,  for  some  reason  or  other, 
added  certain  notions  to  their  idea  of  God  or  ex- 
alted certain  persons  to  such  a  high  position  as  to 
debase  the  original  purity  of  the  conception  of  the 
unity  of  God. 

God  Is  a  Spirit— We  believe  that  God  has  neither 
figure,  shape  nor  form.  He  is  incorporeal.  Our 
idea  of  God's  perfection  implies  the  belief  that  He 
is  free  from  all  changes  and  defects  which  are  the 
necessary  conditions  of  all  material  objects. 

Great  stress  is  placed  also  on  this  belief  in  Juda- 
ism.    The   prohibition   against   making   any   image 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

or  likeness  of  God  is  intended  to  guard  against  any 
debasement  of  this  idea.  It  is  but  a  small  step  from 
worshipping  God  in  an  image  to  worshipping  the 
image  as  God.  "Take  ye  therefore  good  heed  unto 
yourselves ;  for  ye  saw  no  manner  of  form  on  the 
day  that  the  Lord  spoke  unto  you  in  Horeb  out  of 
the  midst  of  the  fire"  (Deuteronomy  4:  15). 

The  Biblical  passages  in  which  God  is  referred 
to  in  terms  of  a  corporeal  being,  ascribing  to  him 
even  bodily  organs,  should  be  explained  in  a  figura- 
tive sense.  We  can  think  of  God  only  in  the  light 
of  our  limited  knowledge  and  experience,  and  it  is 
from  these  that  we  borrow  epithets  to  describe  our 
ideas  of  the  deity.  The  Bible  is  a  document  intended 
for  the  people,  and  the  writer  freely  borrowed  terms 
from  human  experience,  since  these  expressed  best 
to  the  people  the  ideas  that  he  wished  to  convey,  in 
the  same  manner  as  we  use  figurative  expressions 
today  in  literature  and  even  in  conversation.  Such 
terms,  therefore,  as  "the  hand  of  God,"  or  "the 
throne  of  God,"  or  other  such  anthropomorphisms, 
have  always  been  understood  and  interpreted  by 
most  Jewish  thinkers  as  picturesque  figures  for  the 
purpose  of  bringing  near  to  the  ken  of  the  people 
ideas  that  are  abstract  and  exalted.  "The  Bible 
speaks  in  the  language  of  men"  is  the  dictum  of  the 
Rabbis. 

The  belief  in  the  eternity  of  God  and  His  un- 
changeability  is  included  in  the  idea  of  His  spiritual 
nature.  Material  objects  only  have  a  beginning  and 
an  end  and  are  subject  to  change.  Spiritual  matters 
are  not  subject  to  change  and  are  eternal. 

Care  should  be  taken,  in  dwelling  upon  the  spirit- 
ual character  of  God's  being,  not  to  identify  God 
with  an  impersonal  power  or  influence,  but  to  regard 
Him   as   life,   consciousness   and   personality.     We 

200 


Jewish  Faith — God  and  Man 


cannot  worship  a  power  whose  actions  are  imper- 
sonal; we  cannot  worship  a  power,  an  influence,  a 
bHnd  force.  The  human  heart  craves  for  a  reaHty, 
for  a  Hfe-possessing  and  Hfe-giving  being,  and  this 
yearning  is  not  satisfied  by  the  beUef  in  an  abstrac- 
tion. We  believe  that  God  is  a  Being,  a  person, 
who  has  real  and  individual  existence  and  still  is  a 
spiritual  being,  free  from  the  accidents  and  condi- 
tions to  which  material  persons  and  beings  are  sub- 
ject. 

God  is  Omnipotent. — We  believe  that  God's 
powers  are  unlimited.  All  the  laws  of  nature  and  of 
the  universe  work  in  accordance  with  His  Supreme 
W^ill.  All  power  and  might  have  their  origin  in  His 
supreme  power.  He  is  limited  only  by  His  own  will 
and  by  His  own  purposes. 

The  miracles  recorded  in  the  Bible  bring  out  in 
strongest  relief  this  idea  of  God's  omnipotence. 
They  present  Him  as  the  Master  of  the  universe  to 
whose  will  and  for  whose  purposes  the  powers  of 
nature,  His  own  creations,  must  yield  obedience. 
Our  conception  of  the  nature  of  God  and  of  His 
powers  includes  the  possibility  of  miracles.  The 
Author  of  nature  certainly  can  change  its  laws  for 
certain  purposes.  The  change  in  the  workings  of 
the  universe,  which  the  miracle  presents,  is  no  more 
wonderful  than  the  regular  process  of  natural  phe- 
nomena. It  is  only  its  unusual  character  that  arrests 
our  attention  and  recalls  to  us  an  idea  or  a  belief 
with  which  God  wishes  us  to  be  impressed  at  a  given 
moment. 

God  Is  Omniscient. — God's  wisdom  is  infinite. 
He  knows  everything  of  the  past,  present  and  future. 
He  knows  the  innermost  secrets  of  our  hearts,  and 
nothing  is  hidden  from  before  Him. 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

It  is  difficult  for  us  to  form  a  correct  idea  of  the 
nature  of  God's  wisdom  and  knowledge.  Although 
we  firmly  believe  in  God's  omniscience,  we  are 
still  convinced  of  man's  freedom  to  act  in  accord- 
ance with  the  bent  of  his  will.  These  two  ideas  ap- 
pear contradictory.  If  God  knows  beforehand  what 
our  actions  will  be,  we  are  no  more  free  to  act  in 
any  other  way  but  in  the  manner  which  will  agree 
with  His  knowledge.  Still,  the  Jewish  religion  in- 
cludes both  these  beliefs  and  overlooks  this  contra- 
diction, ascribing  it  to  the  limited  nature  of  our 
powers  of  reasoning  to  appreciate  fully  the  nature 
of  God's  wisdom  and  knowledge.  The  idea  that 
man  is  a  free  agent,  able  to  exercise  his  powers  for 
good  or  for  evil,  is  a  fundamental  element  of  all  re- 
ligion and  of  all  morality.  There  could  be  no  re- 
sponsibility, no  duty,  no  reward  or  punishment 
without  freedom  of  the  will.  On  the  other  hand, 
God's  omniscience  is  a  necessary  consequence  from 
our  idea  of  His  nature  and  perfection,  on  which  re- 
peated stress  is  laid  in  the  Bible.  Firmly  believing 
in  these  two  ideas,  many  Jewish  thinkers  and  phi- 
losophers have  endeavored  to  find  a  solution  to  the 
apparent  contradiction  betw^een  them.  They  say 
that  although  God  knows  beforehand  what  we  shall 
do,  He  does  not  determine  our  actions.  ''Every- 
thing is  foreknown,  but  man  is  free,"  is  the  dictum 
of  the  Rabbis.  His  knowledge  of  our  future  deeds 
does  not  constitute  a  necessary  cause  for  these  deeds. 
Our  actions  are  determined  by  our  wills,  by  the 
character  we  fashioned  within  us  and  the  fact  that 
God  knows  beforehand  what  they  will  be  under  cer- 
tain conditions  does  not  deprive  us  of  that  freedom. 
In  such  elemental  ideas,  however,  which  form  the 
basis  of  our  spiritual  lives,  it  is  safest  to  seek  refuge 
in  faith,  in  the  inner  convictions  of  our  souls  which 

202 


Jczcish  Faith — God  and  Man 


prompt  the  belief  even  in  the  face  of  apparent  para- 
doxes. 

God  and  the  World. — We  believe  that  this  world 
in  which  we  live,  as  well  as  the  many  other  worlds 
in  this  vast  universe,  is  the  creation  of  God.  His 
wisdom  and  power  have  become  manifested  in  the 
wonderful  order  and  regularity  of  the  forces  of 
nature.  The  first  chapter  of  Genesis  is  not  so  much 
a  narrative  of  the  manner  in  which  the  world  came 
into  existence  as  it  is  a  declaration  that  it  was  God 
who  called  it  into  existence.  The  emphasis  is  placed 
on  the  Creator  rather  than  on  the  things  created. 
That  the  world  is  the  creation  of  God  is  one  of  the 
cardinal  principles  of  the  Jewish  religion. 

God  is  not  only  the  Creator  of  the  universe.  He 
is  also  its  Ruler  and  Guide.  God's  activity  did  not 
cease  with  the  creation  of  the  world.  His  powers 
and  His  wisdom  are  constantly  exercised  in  the  di- 
rection of  nature  and  in  the  process  of  the  affairs  of 
His  creatures.  Nothing  happens  by  chance,  noth- 
ing escapes  His  all-seeing  eye,  nothing  is  so  insig- 
nificant as  to  be  beneath  His  notice  and  watchful 
care.  This  immense  universe,  with  all  its  wonder- 
ful creatures,  with  its  inherent  laws  of  development 
and  growth,  with  its  manifold  marvellous  phenom- 
ena is  under  the  constant  care  and  unremitting 
supervision  of  the  divine  Providence  Who  called 
it  into  being  and  Who  guides  it  in  wisdom  and 
kindness. 

Our  deep-seated  conviction  of  God's  existence  and 
our  conception  of  His  divine  nature  receive  constant 
corroboration  and  proof  from  our  observation  of  the 
laws  of  nature,  operating  in  the  world.  The  hand 
of  the  wise  and  powerful  Ruler  is  seen  everywhere, 
and  His  wisdom  is  manifest  in  all  His  works.    God, 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


the  Creator  of  the  World,  is  also  its  director  and 
ruler,  who  watches  over  His  handiwork  with  infinite 
tenderness  and  care.  He  knows  everything,  not 
merely  because  it  is  part  of  His  very  nature  to 
know,  but  also  because  He  cares  to  know  all  about 
His  creatures.  He  is  mighty,  and  there  is  no  limit 
to  His  powers,  and  still  is  interested  in  the  fate  of 
the  weakest  of  His  creatures  and  provides  suste- 
nance and  support  for  all  of  them.  He  is  infinite, 
transcendent,  but  not  distant  and  unapproachable. 
"Thou  openest  Thy  hand  and  satisfiest  every  living 
thing  with  favor"  (Psalms  145:16).  The  meanest 
of  His  creatures  is  the  object  of  God's  solicitude  and 
care.  At  creation  His  blessing  was  extended  to  all 
His  creatures  (Genesis  1:22).  He  cares  for  them 
all,  He  loves  them  all,  He  has  pity  on  them  all, 
"even  as  the  father  pitieth  his  child." 

God  and  Man. — The  formation  of  man  is  repre- 
sented as  the  crowning  point  in  the  work  of  creation. 
God  made  man  in  His  own  image,  endowing  him 
with  a  soul,  which  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the 
divine,  of  God  Himself.  He  distinguished  him 
from  all  the  other  creatures  in  stature,  in  the 
power  of  using  his  limbs  and  in  the  gift  of  speech. 
The  features  of  man's  face  mirror  the  wonderful 
workings  of  his  spirit,  which  God  breathed  into 
him.  The  soul  of  man  is  endowed  with  the  power 
of  reasoning,  by  which  he  is  enabled  to  discriminate 
between  the  true  and  the  false  and  by  which  he  is 
guided  in  forming  opinions  and  judgments  about 
himself,  about  the  world  around  him  and  about  God. 
The  soul  also  possesses  the  power  to  appreciate  and 
enjoy  the  beautiful  in  the  world  and  in  art,  to  ex- 
perience the  emotions  of  love  and  of  hate ;  above  all, 
to  distinguish  between  right  and  wrong,  ever  yearn- 

204 


Jewish  Faith — God  and  Man 


ing  for  the  right  and  for  the  noble,  ever  endeavoring 
to  attain  to  the  highest  standards  of  moraHty  and 
perfect  conduct.  God  has  further  implanted  in  the 
soul  of  man  the  power  to  translate  his  knowledge 
and  emotions  into  actions,  to  exercise  his  will  in  his 
conduct  and  thus  form  character.  While  subject 
to  the  passions  and  accidents  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  lower  animals  are,  man  is  able  to  rise  above 
these  by  virtue  of  his  divine  soul,  which,  through 
its  will  power,  is  able  to  suppress  passions  and  con- 
trol the  accidents  of  his  material  being  and  lead 
him  on  to  a  state  of  perfection.  Through  the  emo- 
tional powers  of  his  soul,  man  is  able  to  derive  un- 
told pleasure  and  joy  in  life,  not  granted  to  other 
animals,  to  establish  close  relationships  with  his 
fellows,  on  the  basis  of  mutual  love  and  respect. 
By  the  exercise  of  his  moral  sense,  and  by  obeying 
the  dictates  of  his  conscience,  he  is  able  to  distin- 
guish between  good  and  evil  and  to  build  up  within 
himself  an  inclination  towards  righteous  conduct 
and  set  an  example  of  virtue  to  others.  His  powers 
of  judgment  and  discernment  confer  upon  him  the 
ability  to  see  the  truth  and  to  learn  of  the  wonders 
of  the  w^orld  and  the  greatness  of  God.  "Thou  hast 
made  him  but  little  lower  than  angels  and  hast 
crowned  him  with  glory  and  honor."  (Psalm  8 :  6.) 
Exalted  far  above  all  other  beings,  partaking  of 
the  qualities  of  the  divine,  man  is  still  subject  to  all 
the  ills  and  changes  that  are  the  lot  of  the  lower 
creatures.  His  soul  is,  indeed,  the  daughter  of 
heaven,  but  his  body  is  part  of  the  earth,  actuated 
by  earthly  instincts  and  unholy  desires  and  subject 
to  material  needs  and  requirements.  The  soul,  with 
its  spiritual  powers  and  almost  divine  character,  has 
the  ability  to  curb  these  desires  and  direct  these  in- 
stincts so  as  to  make  them  act  in  harmony  with  its 

205 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jendsh  Religion 

divine  nature.  Tlie  lower  inclinations  of  man,  how- 
ever, often  refuse  to  yield  to  the  dictates  of  his 
better  self  and  lead  him  on  to  sin,  v^ith  all  the  con- 
sequent suffering  and  misery  that  come  in  its  wake. 
In  deviating  from  the  path  of  virtue,  man  proves 
himself  false  to  his  real  nature,  to  his  spiritual  self 
and  to  such  an  extent  forfeits  the  special  favor  of 
God  by  which  he  is  raised  above  the  level  of  the 
brute  creation.  God  has  given  him  freedom  to  act 
as  he  pleases,  but  he  also  implanted  in  him  the 
power  to  discern  the  good  and  to  follow  it.  The 
brute  cannot  sin  because  it  is  not  responsible  for  its 
acts ;  it  has  no  conception  of  right  and  wrong.  When 
man,  however,  permits  his  lower  inclination  to  ob- 
tain the  mastery  over  him,  he  incurs  the  displeasure 
of  God,  because  he  neglects  to  make  use  of  the  divine 
gift  of  the  soul  and  God  will  not  permit  guilt  to  re- 
main unpunished.  On  the  other  hand,  when  man 
seeks  to  master  his  animal  instincts  and  to  allow 
his  spirit  to  become  ruler  over  his  actions  and 
thoughts,  when  he  endeavors  to  realize  the  divine 
that  is  within  him  to  its  utmost  limit,  his  efforts 
will  be  rewarded  with  God's  blessings  of  peace  and 
happiness.     (See  Chapter  XVIII.) 

God  in  Relation  to  Man. — God's  kindness  and 
love,  which  are  extended  to  all  His  creatures,  be- 
come especially  manifest  in  His  relations  with  man. 
He  is  just,  dealing  out  to  men  and  to  nations  their 
fate  in  accordance  with  their  deserts.  But  He  is 
also  kind  and  tempers  His  justice  with  mercy.  His 
love  is  extended  to  all  His  children,  even  to  the  sin- 
ful and  the  wayward.  He  not  only  guides  and  assists 
man  in  his  efforts  to  reach  the  highest  stage  of  his 
spiritual  development,  but  He  is  also  considerate 
to  those  who  fall  by  the  way  and  permit  themselves 

206 


Jcivish  Faith — Cod  and  Man 


to  be  dragged  down  from  their  high  position  by  the    ^ 
lower  inclinations  of  their  hearts.    "For  He  knoweth  j^ 
our   frame;    He    remembereth    that   we    are    dust""^ 
(Psahns    103:14).      Even    though    one    has    sinned 
God  will  not  reject  him.    He  stretches  out  His  hand 
to  the  sincerely  repentant  sinner,  and  helps  him  to 
rise  again  to  a  life  of  virtue. 

This  consciousness  of  a  living,  loving  God,  Who 
watches  over  us  and  is  concerned  in  our  welfare  and 
in  our  progress,  who  knows  our  innermost  thoughts 
and  is  ever  ready  to  extend  to  us  His  guidance  and 
assistance  in  our  endeavors  to  follow  in  the  path  of 
virtue  and  righteousness  and  to  attain  a  clearer 
knowledge  of  the  world  and  of  its  divine  Author, 
is  the  great  blessing  that  religion  offers  to  its  ad- 
herents. This  great  and  infinite  God,  this  just  and 
holy  God,  who  hates  all  falsehood  and  all  iniquity, 
is  our  God,  who  loves  us,  who  desires  our  happiness, 
who  delights  in  our  triumphs  over  temptation  and 
sin.  He  is  ever  near  to  us.  He  is  a  merciful  Being, 
who  accepts  the  repentant  sinner,  who  listens  to 
our  prayers,  who  is  benign  in  judgment  and  com- 
passionate in  His  relations  with  weak,  stumbling, 
struggling  humanity.  This  is,  indeed,  a  most  blessed 
assurance.  This  is,  indeed,  a  most  blessed  relation- 
ship. 
»4  If  God's  relationship  to  man  is  manifested  in 
r  terms  of  lovq  and  mercy,  man's  relation  to  God  is 
^' interpreted  in  terms  of  the  fulfillment  of  duty.  In 
order  that  we  may  be  able  to  recognize  our  duties 
and  fulfill  them,  God  has  not  only  given  us  the 
powers  of  the  soul,  which  we  call  conscience,  by 
which  we  are  able  to  distinguish  between  right  and 
wrong,  but  He  also  made  manifest  to  us  His  will 
through  special  messengers,  whom  He  especially 
endowed  with  the  power  of  discernment  and  wisdom 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

to  bring  His  revelation  to  us.  Our  faith  in  God  and 
His  nature  and  our  recognition  of  our  duties  as 
prescribed  for  us  by  God,  constitute  religion.  The 
Jewish  religion  has  this  in  common  with  other  re- 
ligions ;  the  difference  between  them  is  the  spe- 
cial construction  given  to  the  terms  and  the  dis- 
tinct process  of  development  which  they  assumed 
in  the  course  of  history.  The  Jewish  faith  consists 
in  the  belief  in  God,  who  is  one  and  indivisible,  who 
is  just  and  loving,  and  who  has  made  His  will  known 
to  us  in  the  Bible  and  through  His  messengers 
throughout  all  generations. 

RESUME 

The  presentation  of  this  lesson  will  difiFer  greatly 
from  the  manner  of  presentation  of  any  of  the  pre- 
ceding lessons.  The  subjective  attitude  of  the 
teacher  will  form  a  much  stronger  element  in  the 
manner  of  presentation  of  this  lesson  than  in  the 
former  lessons,  where  an  array  of  concrete  facts  is 
to  be  presented  (see  "New  Education  in  Religion," 
Chapter  IV).  The  attempt  has  therefore  been  made 
here  to  indicate  not  so  much  how  the  lesson  is  to  be 
presented  as  what  points  need  special  emphasis  and 
elucidation.  There  are  several  good  text-books 
which  deal  with  the  subject  and  which  will  suggest 
to  the  teacher  different  ways  of  approaching  the  les- 
son. The  teacher  should  consult  especially,  Joseph, 
"Judaism  as  Creed  and  Life";  Friedlander,  "The 
Jewish  Religion,"  and  N.  S.  Joseph,  "Religion,  Nat- 
ural and  Revealed."  Kohler's  "Guide  for  Instruc- 
tion in  Judaism"  treats  the  subject  only  briefly, 
but  the  arrangement  and  the  point  of  view  will  be 
helpful  to  many  teachers. 

Do  not  make  this  a  lesson  in  theology.  Let  it 
208 


Jewish  Faith — God  and  Man 


be  a  lesson  in  religion,  arousing  emotions  and  direct- 
ing them,  stirring  up  sentiment  and  strengthening 
it.  Argument  and  proof  will  only  tend  to  create 
suspicion  and  uncertainty.  On  reaching  the  Junior 
or  Senior  grades,  the  child  has  heard  enough  about 
God  and  His  nature  and  attributes.  What  the 
teacher  should  do  now  is  to  organize  these  vague 
and  scattered  ideas,  define  them  as  far  as  they  per- 
mit of  definition  and  impress  them  upon  the  child's 
consciousness  by  force  of  the  teacher's  personality 
and  depth  of  faith. 

Difficulties  will,  indeed,  present  themselves  in  the 
course  of  this  lesson.  These  difficulties  are  not  only 
inherent  in  the  very  nature  of  presenting  abstract 
ideas  to  children,  but  some  of  them  are  of  a  kind 
that  have  troubled  the  minds  of  thinkers  through- 
out the  centuries.  It  is  difficult  to  reconcile  God's 
omnipotence  with  the  idea  of  miracles.  It  is  difficult 
to  harmonize  the  idea  of  God's  omniscience  with 
man's  freedom  of  will.  It  is  difficult  to  reconcile 
the  idea  of  the  goodness  of  God  with  the  existence 
of  suffering  and  pain,  even  while  recognizing  their 
disciplinary  value.  Still,  if  faith  is  once  firmly  es- 
tablished and  the  tremendous  distance  between  the 
infinite  or  the  purely  spiritual  and  the  finite  or 
the  material  made  clear,  these  difficulties  will  be 
greatly  minimized.  The  limited  nature  of  man's 
reasoning  powers  should  be  strongly  emphasized  in 
this  lesson,  as  well  as  the  relation  of  reason  to  feel- 
ing in  the  human  soul.  Not  every  fact  in  human 
life  that  is  recognized  as  true  is  so  merely  by  virtue 
of  the  intellect's  assent.  Feelings,  even  though  they 
cannot  be  proved  by  logical  syllogisms,  are  just  as 
important  and  just  as  true  to  us  as  geometrical 
theorems  which  are  established  by  a  series  of  proofs. 
We  know,  for  instance,  that  a  certain  picture  or  a 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

certain  air  of  music  is  beautiful,  even  though  we  are 
entirely  unacquainted  with  the  rules  of  painting  or 
with  the  technique  of  music.  We  feel  that  it  is 
beautiful,  although  we  can  give  no  reason  for  the 
feeling;  we  are  as  certain  of  the  beauty  of  the 
picture  or  the  music  as  we  are  that  the  three 
angles  of  a  triangle  equal  two  right  angles.  Simi- 
larly, in  our  social  relations,  we  feel  attracted  to 
one  person  and  repelled  by  another,  without  any 
apparent  reason.  We  are  not  even  able  to  account 
for  the  feeling  to  ourselves,  and  still  the  feeling  is 
true  to  us,  as  if  proved  by  the  rules  of  reasoning. 
The  truth  of  our  convictions  does  not  depend  on 
their  source,  whether  they  are  derived  from  our 
emotions  or  from  our  intellect.  There  are  some 
things  which  we  feel  to  be  true,  even  though  we  can- 
not prove  them  to  be  so,  and  our  conviction  regard- 
ing them  is  as  strong,  if  not  stronger,  than  our  con- 
viction regarding  mathematical  axioms. 

When  the  teacher  comes  to  the  presentation  of 
God's  attitude  to  the  world  and  to  man,  his  task 
will  become  much  easier.  God's  justice,  God's  love 
and  kindness  are  much  more  easily  comprehended 
than  His  power  and  wisdom  and  incorporeality. 
The  former  are  so  much  nearer  to  us,  so  much  closer 
to  our  everyday  experiences,  that  we  are  able  to 
comprehend  them  much  more  readily. 

The  nature  of  man,  his  composite  character,  his 
struggle  against  evil  and  his  progress  in  the  direc- 
tion of  righteousness  and  perfection  can  be  vividly 
and  effectively  portrayed  by  the  skillful  teacher. 
The  Bible,  especially  the  Book  of  Psalms,  can  be 
drawn  upon  for  example  and  illustration  to  good  ad- 
vantage. The  idea  of  God's  nearness  to  human  af- 
fairs, of  His  interest  in  the  life  of  man  and  His  solici- 
tude for  his  welfare,  should  be  strongly  emphasized. 

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Jewish  Faith — God  and  Man 


This  idea,  if  made  sufficiently  vivid,  can  become  a 
most  potent  stimulus  to  right  action  and  holy  living. 
*'I  have  set  the  Lord  always  before  me;  surely 
He  is  at  my  right  hand,  I  shall  not  be  moved" 
(Psalms  16:  8).  The  assurance  of  God's  protection 
and  love,  the  confidence  which  we  feel  that  He  will 
grant  our  prayers  and  receive  us  in  kindness,  even 
when  we  have  strayed  from  the  right  path,  is  the 
greatest  blessing  religion  can  bestow.  God's  love 
for  us  calls  forth  in  us  a  feeling  of  obligation  to  Him, 
the  duty  to  do  what  He  wishes  us  to  do,  what  He 
commanded  us  to  do.  The  belief  in  one  God,  Who 
is  in  direct  touch  with  the  affairs  of  His  human  chil- 
dren and  the  feehng  of  obligation  that  we  expe- 
rience towards  Him,  the  desire  to  worship  Him  and 
to  adhere  to  His  commandments  as  laid  down  in  His 
special  revelation  to  our  ancestors,  together  con- 
stitute the  Jewish  Faith. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  How  should  the  idea  of  the  existence  of  God 
be  presented  to  children?  What  witnesses  can  be 
produced  to  strengthen  this  idea? 

2.  Explain  how  the  idea  of  God's  perfection 
necessarily  follows  from  the  idea  of  His  existence. 
In  what  manner  do  we  conceive  of  His  perfection? 

3.  Why  do  we  regard  the  idea  of  the  Unity  of 
God  as  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  idea  of  His 
perfection?  What  position  does  this  doctrine  hold 
in  Judaism? 

4.  How  do  you  explain  the  anthropomorphisms 
of  the  Bible  in  view  of  our  belief  in  God's  spiritual 
nature? 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

5.  Are  miracles  possible?  Is  the  belief  in  mira- 
cles out  of  harmony  with  the  idea  of  God's  omnipo- 
tence?   Give  your  own  view  of  this. 

6.  In  what  manner  is  the  apparent  contradiction 
between  the  idea  of  God's  omniscience  and  the  be- 
lief in  freedom  of  the  will  reconciled? 

7.  Explain  the  terms  God  the  Creator  and  Ruler 
of  the  Universe. 

8.  In  what  is  man  distinguished  from  other 
creatures?    What  duties  does  this  distinction  imply? 

9.  What  qualities  do  we  ascribe  to  God  in  His 
relation  to  man?  Describe  the  value  of  the  idea  of 
God's  nearness  to  man  in  helping  man  in  his  striv- 
ings for  perfection. 

10.  Define  religion,  giving  a  definition  of  the 
Jewish  religion  in  the  same  terms. 


212 


Till':  Blessin(; 

U-rom  a  Bns-Rdief  by  Boris  Stiialz) 


XVI.    SOURCES    OF   JUDAISM- 
REVELATION 

The  Jewish  Bible. — The  primary  source  of  Jewish 
rehgious  thought  and  conduct  is  the  Bible,  more 
particularly  the  Pentateuch  or  Torah.  Our  convic- 
tions about  God  and  His  relation  to  the  world,  and 
about  man  and  his  duties,  find  their  truest  expres- 
sion in  this  book.  It  relates  the  religious  experiences 
of  the  Jewish  people,  their  conception  of  God  and 
duty,  their  ideals  of  life  and  conduct,  and  the  divine 
help  given  them  in  their  struggle  for  holiness  and 
perfection.  It  narrates  the  early  history  of  a  people 
who  made  religion  the  chief  factor  in  life,  who  iden- 
tified themselves  closely  with  the  divine  in  the  world 
and  elaborated  a  system  of  ethics  and  observances 
on  this  basis.  In  it  we  find  the  large  principles 
of  religion  and  morality  which  have  now  become  the 
possession  of  all  civilized  humanity;  the  numerous 
laws  and  observances  that  were  intended  primarily 
to  maintain  the  individuality  of  the  Jewish  people 
and  the  purity  of  their  religious  ideals ;  and,  also, 
although  not  in  a  systematic  form,  the  basis  of  the 
various  religious  doctrines  and  dogmas  which  are 
regarded  essential  to  an  adherence  to  Judaism. 

The  Bible  is  thus  the  treasure-house  of  Israel's 
religious  life — the  foundation  on  which,  throughout 
all  these  centuries,  the  structure  of  Judaism  has 
been  reared ;  the  constitution  which  embodies  for  all 
time  the  laws  of  Jewish  religious  conduct.  From  it, 
the  Jew  derives  not  only  the  inspiration  for  right- 
living  and  right-thinking,  but  also  actual  guidance 
and  direction  in  the  path  of  holiness  and  duty;  not 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

only  correct  ideas  about  God  and  His  nature,  but 
also  the  detailed,  successive  steps  that  he  must  take 
in  order  to  reach  the  height  of  that  spiritual  life 
which  God  wishes  him  to  live.  It  not  only  tells  the 
wonderful  story  of  a  people  that  made  holiness  its 
goal  in  life,  and  righteousness  its  highest  ambition, 
but  it  also  presents  in  detail  the  laws  of  conduct  in 
concrete  cases  which  this  people,  with  the  help  of 
God,  evolved  and  elaborated,  and  which  have  be- 
come the  standard  for  all  successive  generations. 
The  Bible  presents  both  the  law  and  its  application, 
the  doctrine  and  its  effect  upon  its  adherents,  the 
historic  event  as  influenced  by  the  law  and  doctrine 
and  as  influencing  the  further  development  of  both. 

Although  the  expression  of  Israel's  religious  ex- 
perience and  its  particular  relation  to  God,  the  Bible 
still  contains  elements  of  a  universal  character, 
which  have  made  it  the  object  of  admiration  and 
reverence  of  millions  of  men  outside  of  the  Jewish 
people.  The  purity  of  its  religious  ideals,  the  ex- 
alted and  sublime  nature  of  its  standard  of  morality, 
the  intense  religious  fervor  which  characterizes  its 
pages  could  not  but  arrest  the  attention  and  compel 
the  veneration  of  all  men  whose  souls  crave  for 
truth  and  for  spiritual  guidance.  For  centuries  it 
has  held  the  unique  position  of  being  The  Book 
(Bible)  par  excellence,  the  book  which  contains  the 
eternal  verities  of  life,  which  indicates  the  true  pur- 
pose of  human  existence  and  oflfers  assistance  in  the 
effort  to  realize  this  purpose.  Even  those  who  deny 
the  divine  authority  and  authorship  of  the  Bible 
readily  admit  its  great  intrinsic  worth,  the  grandeur 
of  its  teachings,  the  sublimity  of  its  conceptions  of 
duty  and  human  responsibility. 

Note. — The  teacher  should  refrain  from  using  the 
term  "Old  Testament"  in  speaking  of  the  Jewish 

214 


Sources  of  Judaism — Revelation 


Bible.  This  is  a  term  employed  by  Christians  and 
implies  the  existence  of  a  New  Testament  or  Cove- 
nant, which  we,  as  Jews,  do  not  recognize.  The 
''Bible,"  or  the  ''Jewish  Bible,"  should  be  the  only 
term  used  in  the  class-room. 

The  Authority  of  the  Torah. — ^The  claim  of  the 
Torah  upon  the  Jew,  however,  is  not  merely  a  claim 
of  veneration  and  affection.  It  also  demands  his 
obedience,  both  to  its  system  of  moral  laws  and  re- 
ligious ceremonies  and  to  the  doctrines  which  it 
teaches.  The  Jew  is  expected  to  obey  the  laws  of 
the  Bible  and  to  make  the  Torah  the  norm  of  his 
life,  and  this  not  merely  because  its  laws  are  right 
and  its  regulations  call  forth  the  assent  of  his  own 
conscience,  but  mainly  because  its  precepts  are 
divine  and  its  statutes  have  the  sanction  of  God 
Himself.  It  is  an  essential  doctrine  of  the  Jewish 
religion  that  God  made  His  will  known  to  the  peo- 
ple by  means  of  a  series  of  revelations,  the  most  im- 
I>ortant  and  the  most  general  being  the  revelation 
of  Mt.  Sinai.  Israel  then  perceived  most  distinctly 
the  purpose  of  its  existence  as  the  religious  people, 
God's  "peculiar  treasure,"  to  whom  these  laws  were 
entrusted  and  from  whom  the  ideals  of  a  pure  re- 
ligion and  an  exalted  morality  were  to  emanate  and 
illumine  the  world.  "Now,  therefore,  if  you  hearken 
unto  my  voice  indeed  and  keep  my  covenant,  then 
ye  shall  be  mine  own  treasure  from  among  all  peo- 
ples ;  for  all  the  earth  is  Mine :  And  ye  shall  be  unto 
me  a  kingdom  of  priests  and  a  holy  nation.  .  .  . 
And  all  the  people  answered  together  and  said,  *A11 
that  the  Lord  hath  spoken  will  we  do.'  "  (Exodus 
19:5-8.) 

Thus  the  observance  of  the  Law  is  made  the  con- 
dition of  Israel's  claim  to  be  the  chosen  people  of 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

God,  the  condition  for  the  realization  of  the  pur- 
pose of  the  very  existence  of  the  Jewish  people.  It 
is  in  this  sense  that  the  authority  of  the  Torah  was 
conceived  by  Jews  throughout  the  ages.  The  Torah 
was  regarded  as  the  supreme  document  for  the  guid- 
ance of  the  Jewish  people,  endowed  with  absolute 
authority,  because  it  expressed  God's  will  and  God's 
purpose  for  Israel.  It  was  regarded  as  the  work  of 
God,  sacred  and  eternal,  applicable  to  all  times  and 
conditions.  It  was  also  looked  upon  as  the  na- 
tional constitution  of  Israel,  the  deviation  from 
which  would  constitute  an  act  of  treason.  This  is 
the  three-fold  claim  of  the  Torah  upon  the  Jewish 
people.  It  possesses  divine  authority,  being  given 
by  God  for  the  guidance  of  Israel,  so  as  to  make  it 
realize  God's  purpose  for  it;  its  intrinsic  worth 
evokes  our  assent  and  admiration,  which  is  shared 
also  by  the  rest  of  civilized  humanity;  Israel  gave 
to  it  a  national  sanction,  making  it  the  supreme  law 
of  the  nation  and  regulating,  for  centuries,  its  na- 
tional life  in  accordance  with  its  precepts  and  in- 
junctions. 

Revelation  and  Prophecy. — As  pointed  out  in  the 
foregoing  Chapter,  God  reveals  Himself  to  every 
human  being.  He  reveals  Himself  to  us  in  nature 
and  in  human  experiences,  but  most  distinctly  in  our 
own  conscience.  The  ability  of  man  to  discern  the 
good  and  the  true,  and  the  inner  force  compelling 
him  to  follow  these  and  apply  them  in  life,  is  rec- 
ognized as  a  divine  gift,  emanating  from  the  good- 
ness and  wisdom  of  God  Himself.  While  this 
power  is  common  to  all  men,  it  is  not  developed  to 
the  same  degree  in  all  and  consequently  does  not 
function  in  the  same  manner  in  all  persons.  Men 
w^ho  are  endowed  with  greater  strength  of  mind  and 

216 


Sources  of  Jiidalsr.i — Revelation 


will  and  who  live  purer  lives  will  perceive  the  voice 
of  God  in  them  more  distinctly  and  more  readily.  In 
moments  of  religious  ecstasy,  when  the  spirit  of  man 
is  made  complete  master  over  his  bodily  needs  and 
desires  and  rises  aloft,  nearer  to  its  source,  the 
divine  spirit  of  the  universe,  the  soul  is  able  to  see 
things  unseen  at  other  times  and  to  grasp  ideas  that 
are  out  of  ken  of  other  men.  Such  revelations  came 
to  the  patriarchs  of  old  and  to  the  saints  of  all 
generations.  Ever  contemplating  the  spiritual  and 
the  eternal,  ever  meditating  about  God  and  holi- 
ness, their  souls  became  attuned  to  the  voice  of  the 
divine  and  they  were  able  to  hear  it  more  distinctly 
and  more  clearly.  Such  revelations  may  come  to 
any  man  who  so  disciplines  his  soul  and  his  con- 
duct as  to  become  identified  with  the  spiritual  in 
the  world. 

For  certain  purposes  and  at  certain  times,  God 
has  revealed  Himself  to  men  in  a  more  direct  and 
objective  manner,  especially  when  He  desired  to 
convey  a  message  to  the  people.  The  prophet  is 
essentially  the  messenger  of  God,  who  was  to  de- 
liver God's  message  to  the  people.  Aside  from  this 
particular  mission,  the  prophet  stands  in  the  same 
category  with  other  pious  and  godly  men,  who  may 
see  revelations  more  clearly,  but  are  nevertheless 
subject  to  the  errors  and  failings  of  mankind  gen- 
erally. They  were  singled  out  by  God  to  be  the 
bearers  of  His  message  because  of  their  superior 
human  qualities,  because  of  their  loftier  souls  and 
great  spiritual  powers.  The  message  entrusted  to 
them  was  usually  one  of  national  importance,  warn- 
ing against  impending  danger,  rebuking  leaders  and 
princes  for  their  evil  doings  or  extending  consola- 
tion and  hope  to  a  despondent  people.  The  personal 
ability  of  the  individual  prophet  is  manifested  in  the 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

manner  in  which  he  delivered  the  message,  in  the 
literary  style  and  vivid  presentation,  in  the  breadth 
of  vision  and  picturesqueness  of  detail.  In  these 
matters  the  various  prophets  greatly  differed,  al- 
though the  message  itself  came  to  them  from  the 
same  source,  all  being  messengers  of  the  same  God. 

Moses  and  the  Other  Prophets. — Among  the  great 
prophets  of  Israel,  Moses  stands  out  pre-eminent, 
not  only  because  of  his  exalted  personality,  towering 
above  all  the  others,  but  also  because  of  the  nature 
of  the  message  with  which  he  was  entrusted.  The 
great  liberator  and  lawgiver,  the  leader  who  laid  the 
foundation  and  moulded  the  destiny  of  Israel's 
national  existence,  is  presented  to  us  in  the  Bible 
chiefly  as  the  "man  of  God,"  meek  and  gentle,  aim- 
ing in  all  his  endeavors  at  the  establishment  of  a 
nation  with  God  as  its  central  ideal  and  holiness  as 
the  goal  of  individual  and  national  existence.  Stand- 
ing at  the  very  threshold  of  Israel's  career,  he 
casts  his  reflection  upon  the  whole  course  of  its  his- 
tory. His  overwhelming  personality,  manifested  in 
his  great  deeds  for  his  people,  impresses  us  foremost 
by  its  passion  for  righteousness,  by  its  yearning  for 
holiness  and  by  its  eagerness  to  come  in  close  union 
with  God.  In  Moses,  we  see  not  so  much  the  hero 
or  the  lawgiver,  or  even  the  emancipator,  but  chiefly 
the  man  of  God,  whose  great  aim  was  to  direct  his 
people  to  know  and  to  worship  God. 

This  great  personality,  endowed  with  such  supe- 
rior mental  and  spiritual  qualities,  God  chose  to 
transmit  a  message  which  differed,  not  only  in  de- 
gree but  also  in  kind,  from  that  given  to  other 
prophets.  It  was  not  a  message  breathing  forth 
hope  and  courage  to  a  despondent  people,  or  rebuk- 
ing a  backsHding  generation,  or  warning  against  the 

218 


Sources  of  Judaism — Revelation 


approach  of  temporary  danger.  The  message  en- 
trusted to  Moses  contained  a  standard  of  Hving  for 
all  times,  laws  and  regulations  that  shall  guide  the 
Jewish  people  throughout  all  centuries,  eternal 
truths  and  everlasting  assurances.  All  the  other 
prophets  spoke  to  their  respective  generations,  aim- 
ing at  the  removal  of  some  glaring  temporary  evil 
or  at  the  revival  of  faith  and  hope  in  times  of  dire 
distress.  Moses  spoke  to  all  generations ;  his  voice 
is  heard  throughout  the  history  of  Israel,  and  his 
precepts  and  injunctions  entered  the  very  marrow 
of  Israel's  national  life.  (Comp.  Deuteronomy  29: 
9-14.) 

It  is  possible,  as  some  of  the  Jewish  philosophers 
maintain,  that  besides  the  difference  in  the  nature 
of  the  message  entrusted  to  Moses  and  that  given 
to  the  other  prophets  there  was  also  a  difference  in 
the  manner  of  the  revelation  in  each  case.  They 
say,  for  instance,  that  the  other  prophets  received 
God's  message  in  a  vision  or  dream,  by  which  they 
were  overcome  and  put  in  a  state  of  trepidation  and 
fear,  while  Moses  received  his  message  while  he  was 
fully  conscious,  God  speaking  to  him  as  one  man 
speaks  to  another.  ''There  hath  not  arisen  a  prophet 
since  in  Israel  like  unto  Moses,  whom  the  Lord 
knew  face  to  face"  (Deuteronomy  34:10;  comp. 
Numbers  12:  6-8).  This,  however,  is  purely  a  spec- 
ulative matter,  of  which  our  conception  can  only  be 
dim  and  uncertain.  It  is  not  possible  for  us  to  form 
a  clear  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  God  chooses  to 
reveal  Himself  to  His  chosen  messengers  and  how 
these  messengers  become  conscious  of  having  re- 
ceived such  a  message  from  God.  Lacking  the  ex- 
perience of  the  prophet,  we  are  unable  to  picture 
to  ourselves  the  mode  of  the  revelation  made  to 
him,  and  any  presentation  given  of  it  by  the  various 

219 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  lavish  Religion 

Jewish  thinkers  and  sages  has  the  authority  only  of 
the  man  who  pronounced  it.  But  whatever  the  ex- 
planation, we  are  conscious  that  the  prophetic  reve- 
lation is  more  distinct,  more  exalted  and  more  direct 
than  the  revelations  which  we  experience  in  our  re- 
lations with  God,  and  the  revelations  made  to  Moses 
were  of  a  still  more  exalted  nature,  because  of  their 
eternal  application  and  because  of  their  effect  on 
the  religious  life  of  the  Jewish  people  throughout 
the  centuries. 

The  Revelation  at  Sinai. — A  unique  instance  is 
recorded  in  the  annals  of  the  Jewish  people,  when  a 
prophetic  revelation  was  made  to  a  whole  people  at 
one  time.  The  children  of  Israel,  gathered  at  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Sinai,  at  a  given  moment,  all  became 
conscious  of  a  message  from  God,  entrusted  to  them 
to  keep  and  to  transmit  to  their  descendants,  as  well 
as  to  the  rest  of  mankind.  In  the  same  manner  as 
the  message  was  delivered  to  the  individual  prophet 
the  Ten  Commandments  were  given  to  the  whole 
nation  of  Israel.  These  Ten  Words,  containing 
the  elemental  laws  of  religion  and  morality,  the 
basis  of  human  conduct  for  all  times,  were  revealed 
to  all  the  people,  who  had  just  beheld  the  hand  of 
God  in  their  wonderful  redemption  from  the  yoke 
of  bondage  and  were  fired  into  an  intense  religious 
enthusiasm  under  the  direction  of  their  leader, 
Moses.  All  of  them  were,  for  the  time  being,  en- 
dowed with  the  prophetic  gift,  all  heard  the  divine 
voice  proclaiming  these  eternal  laws.  How  they 
heard  it,  how  they  became  conscious  of  the  voice  of 
God  speaking  to  them  or  in  them,  is  a  matter  of 
speculation  and  is  open  to  many  different  explana- 
tions. That  they  did  perceive  the  message  and  were 
convinced  of  its  divine  source  and  of  its  eternal  ap- 

220 


Sources  of  Judaism — Revelation 


plication  is  a  matter  of  history  and  part  of  Jewish 
belief  and  doctrine. 

The  Bible  a  Book  of  Religion. — The  Bible  is  thus, 
according  to  Jewish  belief,  a  divine  document,  trans- 
mitted through  human  hands.  The  teachings  and 
laws,  doctrines  and  precepts  found  in  the  Bible  are 
of  divine  origin,  bearing  the  stamp  of  divine  au- 
thority and  demanding  the  obedience  of  Israel  of  all 
times.  The  form  in  which  these  were  put,  the 
phraseology  and  diction,  the  order  and  arrangement, 
the  illustration  and  simile,  are  the  expression  of  the 
literary  ability  of  the  individual  authors  by  whom 
these  messages  were  delivered  and  are  therefore  not 
always  free  from  error.  The  prophet,  though  pos- 
sessed of  superior  qualities  of  mind  and  spirit,  was 
not  perfect.  He  was  a  product  of  his  age  and  en- 
vironment and  subject  to  the  failings  to  which  all 
men  are  subject.  With  his  clearer  vision  and 
broader  outlook,  he  may  have  foreseen  many  things 
that  were  hidden  from  the  sight  of  his  contem- 
poraries. But  it  is  not  necessary  to  believe  that  he 
foresaw  all  the  discoveries  of  later  ages  or  that  he 
was  familiar  with  all  the  knowledge  of  his  own  age. 
In  delivering  the  divine  message,  therefore,  he  nat- 
urally used  figures  and  phrases  borrowed  from  the 
world  about  him  and  gave  utterance  to  conceptions 
current  in  his  time  and  in  his  immediate  circle. 

The  Bible,  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  is  primarily 
a  book  of  religion,  dealing  mainly  with  matters  of 
faith  and  duty.  We  go  to  our  Bible,  not  for  scien- 
tific knowledge,  but  for  sustenance  and  support  in 
our  spiritual  lives.  The  efforts  to  harmonize  Bibli- 
cal language  with  the  results  of  modern  science 
must  necessarily  remain  speculative  in  nature.  Such 
efforts  were  made  by  many  honest  and  sincere  men, 

221 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

who  sought  to  establish  an  agreement  between 
Biblical  teachings  and  the  scientific  theories  of  their 
respective  ages.  As  a  result,  Jewish  literature  was 
enriched  with  a  large  and  important  section  of  liter- 
ary endeavor,  to  which  the  best  minds  of  Jewry  con- 
tributed. The  value  of  the  Bible  in  life  and  the  truth 
of  its  religious  doctrines  and  laws  do  not  depend  on 
such  a  reconciliation.  The  truths  are  divine  and 
eternal,  while  the  form  in  which  they  are  given  in 
the  Bible  bears  the  marks  of  the  scientific  knowledge 
of  the  age  in  which  these  truths  were  uttered.  In 
its  narrative  portions  also  it  reflects  the  moral  stand- 
ards of  the  time  in  which  the  respective  authors 
lived.  The  divine  truth  passing  through  human 
media  may  be  imperfect  in  form,  but  perfect  and 
eternal  in  essence. 

In  a  similar  manner  should  be  viewed  also  the 
attempts  made  by  modern  scholars  to  apply  the 
rules  of  literary  and  historical  criticism  to  the  study 
of  the  Bible.  The  results  obtained  by  these  Bible 
critics  are  often  at  variance  with  the  accepted  tradi- 
tions, and  this  has  led  some  to  the  belief  that  the  au- 
thority of  the  Bible  has  thereby  been  challenged  and 
its  claim  on  our  veneration  and  obedience  consider- 
ably lessened.  The  critical  study  of  the  Bible  is 
interesting  and  valuable  and  if  reverently  and  cau- 
tiously followed  may  help  greatly  in  a  better  under- 
standing of  its  contents  and  in  obtaining  a  clearer 
conception  of  the  meaning  of  the  text.  The  kernel  of 
religious  truth  underlying  the  various  prophecies 
and  the  sublimity  of  their  moral  teachings,  however, 
are  not  afi^ected  by  such  considerations.  The  name 
of  the  author  of  a  certain  prophecy  or  the  exact  age 
in  which  a  certain  law  first  originated  are  matters  of 
little  consequence  to  the  person  who  seeks  for  re- 
ligious truth  and  moral  guidance.    Whenever  these 

222 


Sources  of  Judaism — Revelation 


truths  were  uttered  and  by  whomever  they  were 
first  promulgated,  they  contain  a  divine  message  and 
hence  possess  authority  and  binding  power  upon 
Jews  of  all  times. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  critical 
study  of  the  Bible  is  still  in  its  infancy  and  that  its 
chief  exponents  are  not  quite  agreed  on  many  vital 
points.  Unfortunately,  also,  this  method  of  study 
has  found  its  most  prominent  followers  outside  of 
the  Jewish  fold,  and  these  are  not  always  actuated 
by  the  scientific  search  after  truth  alone.  Some  of 
them  obviously  approach  the  subject  with  precon- 
ceived notions  and  with  deep  prejudices,  and  their 
aim  to  establish  the  supremacy  of  the  new  faith  over 
its  progenitor,  Judaism,  is  evident  in  their  sup- 
posedly scientific  works.  The  Jews,  who  have  been 
the  sole  custodians  of  the  Bible  for  many  centuries 
and  have  always  guarded  it  with  utmost  care  and 
affection,  have  certain  definite  traditions,  regarding 
all  the  subjects  that  the  modern  critics  have  at- 
tempted to  investigate.  These  traditions  may  be 
submitted  to  examination  and  criticism,  but  should 
not  be  abandoned  until  the  speculative  theories  of 
the  critics  have  established  their  claim  to  superi- 
ority. It  is  not  wise  for  a  teacher  to  discuss  these 
theories,  hypothetical  in  most  cases,  in  the  class- 
room, unless  the  class  consists  of  advanced  students. 
Children  in  the  religious  school  may  well  be  spared 
the  perplexing  problems  raised  by  these  critical  dis- 
cussions. They  should  be  introduced  to  the  inner 
content  of  the  Biblical  writings  ;  they  should  be  made 
acquainted  with  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of  the 
prophetic  messages,  with  the  lasting  worth  of  the 
laws  and  precepts  of  the  Torah,  and  the  speculative 
theories  of  the  modern  critics  may  well  be  post- 
poned to  a  later  time,  when  their  historic  sense  has 

223 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


been  more  fully  developed  and  their  point  of  view 
has  broadened. 

The  Contents  of  the  Bible.— The  Bible  is  divided 
into  three  large  divisions:  the  Pentateuch  or  Torah, 
the  Prophets,  and  the  Holy  Writings  or  Hagio- 
grapha. 

The  Pentateuch,  or  the  Five  Books  of  Moses, 
contains  the  narrative  relating  the  beginnings  of 
the  Hebrew  nation,  the  story  of  the  Patriarchs,  the 
life  in  Egypt  and  the  exodus  and  the  formative 
period  of  the  Israelitish  nations  in  the  wilderness. 
It  also  has  the  laws  and  regulations  instituted  for 
the  guidance  of  the  nation  and  the  many  ceremonies 
to  be  observed  in  religious  worship.  The  five  books 
constituting  the  Torah  are:  Genesis,  Exodus,  Le- 
viticus, Numbers  and  Deuteronomy.  These  names 
are  Greek  in  their  origin  and  describe  the  contents 
of  only  the  first  section  of  each  book.  The  books 
are  divided  into  chapters,  and  these  again  into 
verses.  Besides  this  division,  the  books  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch are  also  divided  into  sections  (Sidra  or  Par- 
ashah),  for  the  purpose  of  the  weekly  readings  in 
the  synagogue. 

The  Prophets  are  divided  into  two  groups:  the 
Earlier  and  the  Later  Prophets.  The  Earlier 
Prophets  continue  the  history  of  Israel  from  the 
time  of  the  occupation  of  Canaan  by  Joshua  to  the 
destruction  of  the  first  Temple  by  the  Babylonians. 
The  names  of  several  prophets  are  mentioned  in 
these  books,  but,  with  few  exceptions,  their  actual 
utterances  are  not  recorded.  The  books  included  in 
this  group  are:  Joshua,  Judges,  the  Two  Books  of 
Samuel  and  the  Two  Books  of  Kings. 

The  Later  Prophets  include  the  following  books : 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,   Ezekiel   and   the  Twelve   Minor 

224 


Sources  of  Judaism — Revelation 


Prophets  (Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah, 
Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Haggai, 
Zechariah  and  Malachi).  These  books  contain  the 
messages  of  the  prophets  who  flourished  in  Israel 
and  Judah  during  the  last  two  centuries  of  the  First 
Commonwealth.  Most  of  these  prophecies  are  warn- 
ings to  the  people  and  their  leaders  of  the  dire  mis- 
fortunes that  are  in  store  for  them  in  consequence 
of  their  evil  deeds.  Some  of  them  hold  forth  mes- 
sages of  comfort  and  hope  to  the  people  who  have 
become  despondent  because  of  the  many  misfortunes 
that  befell  them.  The  prevailing  note  in  all  these 
prophecies  is  the  passionate  longing  of  the  proph- 
ets for  the  establishment  of  righteousness  and  jus- 
tice on  earth  and  for  the  removal  of  all  evils  that 
come  in  the  wake  of  the  idolatrous  practices  which 
the  Jews  learned  from  the  nations  in  whose  midst 
they  lived.  There  are  also  several  chapters  in  these 
books  that  are  of  a  purely  narrative  character,  re- 
peating several  decisive  incidents  in  the  history  of 
the  time,  which  are  recorded  in  the  Books  of  Kings. 

The  Hagiographa  or  Holy  Writings  are  a  collec- 
tion of  devotional  hymns,  popular  proverbs  or  theo- 
logical discussions,  as  well  as  several  of  the  smaller 
books,  of  varying  content.  The  last  books  are 
mainly  historical  in  nature,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 
dealing  with  the  period  of  the  return  from  Babylon 
and  Chronicles  containing  a  general  resume  of  the 
whole  of  Biblical  History.  The  books  included  in 
this  group  are:  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  the  Five 
Scrolls  (Song  of  Songs,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ec- 
clesiastes  and  Esther),  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah  and 
the  Two  Books  of  Chronicles.  The  Five  Scrolls  are 
read  in  the  Synagogue,  wdiile  the  Book  of  Psalms 
is  largely  drawn  upon  in  the  Jewish  liturgy. 

These  twenty-four  books  of  the  Bible  constitute 
225 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

what  is  called  the  Scriptural  Canon.  Tradition 
ascribes  the  fixing  of  the  Canon  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  books  to  the  Men  of  the  Great  Syna- 
gogue, a  body  of  representative  men  who  are  said 
to  have  flourished  during  the  early  period  of  the 
Second  Commonwealth. 

There  is  another  collection  of  books,  known  as 
the  Apocrypha  or  Hidden  Works,  which  were  not 
admitted  to  the  Canon,  and  were  placed  in  a  sepa- 
rate collection.  Some  of  these  v^ere  written  origi- 
nally in  the  Greek  language,  showing  their  origin  to 
be  of  the  time  when  the  Jews  v^^ere  under  Hellenic 
influence  (about  312-175  B.  C.  E.).  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  books  are :  The  Wisdom  of  Josua 
(Jesus),  son  of  Sirach  or  Ecclesiasticus,  the  Wis- 
dom of  Solomon,  the  Books  of  the  Maccabees,  the 
Book  of  Tobit,  the  Book  of  Judith,  the  Book  of 
Susana  and  several  shorter  treatises.  Some  of  them 
relate  historic  events,  others  tell  stories  with  moral 
aims,  v\^hile  others  again  are  collections  of  wise  say- 
ings or  proverbs.  (Comp.  Jewish  Encyclopedia  s.  v. 
"Bible,"  and  various  sub-headings ;  Revelation, 
Prophecy;  Joseph,  "Judaism  as  Creed  and  Life," 
pp.  11-21,  S7  ff. ;  Friedlander,  "The  Jewish  Religion," 
pp.  46-134.) 

RESUME 

The  basis  for  the  religious  truths,  moral  injunc- 
tions and  ceremonial  observances,  which  together 
constitute  Judaism,  is  found  in  the  Bible.  Both  in 
its  narrative  portion  and  in  its  legal  and  prophetic 
portions,  the  Bible  reflects  the  religious  conceptions 
as  well  as  the  religious  experiences  of  the  Jewish 
people.  It  is,  therefore,  the  primary  source  for  all 
the  ideals  that  the  Jews  cherished  and  all  the  laws 

226 


Sources  of  Jiidaisiu — Rcrelation 

and  practices  that  Jews  observed.  The  Bible's 
claim  upon  the  Jew  is  a  threefold  one:  It  is  the 
book  of  revelations,  Avhence  comes  its  divine  au- 
thority; Israel  has  made  it  its  constitution  and  su- 
preme national  document,  hence  its  national  sanc- 
tion ;  it  calls  forth  the  assent  and  admiration  of  our 
individual  conscience,  hence  its  intrinsic  authority. 

Revelation  is  the  communion  of  God  v^ith  man. 
Such  communion  is  constant;  we  need  only  apply 
our  ears  and  we  shall  hear  it.  Men  who  devote  their 
lives  to  the  spiritual  and  the  divine  in  life  are  able 
to  discern  God's  voice  in  them  more  readily.  God 
has,  however,  entered  into  a  more  direct  communion 
with  certain  men,  through  whom  He  wished  to 
transmit  a  message  to  the  people.  These  were  the 
prophets,  who,  though  endowed  with  great  spirit- 
ual powers,  were  still  only  men  of  their  time  and 
surrounding.  The  message  was  divine,  but  the 
manner  of  its  presentation  depended  on  the  peculiar 
gifts  and  endowments  of  the  individual  prophet  who 
was  made  its  bearer. 

Moses,  ''the  man  of  God,"  was  entrusted  with 
messages  that  differed  in  kind  from  those  given  to 
other  prophets.  The  messages  given  to  him  were  of 
eternal  application,  and  they  were  addressed  to  all 
the  people.  They  contained  the  laws  and  regula- 
tions that  the  nation  was  to  observe  in  order  to 
maintain  its  character  as  God's  chosen  people. 

All  the  people  of  Israel  were,  at  one  time,  en- 
dowed with  the  prophetic  gift  and  were  made  the 
recipients  of  the  divine  message.  This  happened 
when  the  fundamental  laws,  underlying  all  moral 
and  religious  conduct,  were  to  be  promulgated.  All 
Israel,  assembled  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Sinai,  were  made 
conscious  of  the  divine  message  entrusted  to  them. 
They    experienced     then    what     every    individual 

227 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

prophet  experienced  when  a  message  was  delivered 
to  him  by  God. 

Divine  in  its  essence,  the  Bible  is  still  in  form 
the  product  of  human  intelligence  and  human  skill, 
and  hence  is  subject  to  the  limitations  to  which  the 
human  mind  is  subject.  It  is  futile  to  seek  to  make 
the  Bible  agree  with  all  the  latest  scientific  theories. 
The  Bible  is  essentially  a  book  about  religion,  and 
all  references  to  the  physical  world  found  in  it  nat- 
urally reflect  the  knowledge  of  the  age  of  the  re- 
spective author.  God's  message  deHvered  to  the 
prophet  was  clothed  by  him  in  the  phraseology 
and  diction  which  he  borrowed  from  his  surround- 
ings and  environment. 

Similarly,  the  application  of  the  rules  of  criticism 
to  the  Bible  in  no  way  invalidates  its  intrinsic  worth 
or  its  divine  authority.  Such  a  study  may  be  of 
great  value  in  the  better  understanding  of  the  text, 
but  it  does  not  afTect  the  eternal  value  of  the  re- 
ligious and  moral  truths  contained  in  the  Bible.  As 
long  as  the  critical  study  of  the  Bible  is  still  in  a 
speculative  state  the  teacher  should  avoid  its  intro- 
duction in  the  classroom. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  the  Bible  to  be  regarded  as  the  pri- 
mary source  of  Judaism? 

2.  What  is  the  threefold  claim  of  the  Bible 
upon  the  Jew?     Explain  in  full. 

3.  Describe  Revelation.  What  was  the  specific 
function  of  the  Prophet? 

4.  In  what  did  the  prophecy  of  Moses  differ 
from  that  of  the  other  prophets?  Was  there  also  a 
difference  in  the  manner  of  revelation? 

228 


Sources  of  Judaism — Revelation 


5.  Describe  the  revelation  at  Mt.  Sinai,  with 
reference  to  its  relation  to  prophetic  revelation. 

6.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  Bible  to  modern 
scientific  theories?  Need  the  Bible  be  reconciled 
with  modern  science? 

7.  How  should  Bible  criticism  be  treated  in  the 
classroom?  What  efifect,  if  any,  has  the  critical 
study  of  the  Bible  on  the  doctrine  of  Biblical  au- 
thority? 

8.  What  are  the  divisions  of  the  Bible?  Dis- 
tinguish between  the  Earlier  and  Later  Prophets. 

9.  Characterize  the  Hagiographa.  The  Apoc- 
rypha.    Quote  examples. 


229 


XVII.     SOURCES  OF  JUDAISM— TRADITION 

Meaning  of  Tradition. — The  belief  in  the  divine 
origin  of  the  Torah  naturally  led  to  the  belief  in  its 
sufficiency  as  the  standard  of  the  religious  and  moral 
life.  Its  prescriptions  concerning  belief  and  con- 
duct were  therefore  regarded  as  absolute  and  eternal 
in  their  application.  They  were  supposed  to  provide 
for  every  emergency  and  for  every  change  that 
future  events  might  occasion. 

In  the  application  of  the  laws  and  precepts  of 
the  Torah  to  actual  life  by  successive  generations, 
however,  it  was  frequently  found  necessary  to  in- 
terpret and  elaborate  them,  so  as  to  make  them 
clearly  understood  by  the  people.  Many  of  the 
laws  are  given  in  the  Bible  in  barest  outline,  and  a 
coming  generation  had  to  fill  out  the  gaps  and 
elaborate  the  details,  in  the  spirit  of  the  Biblical  in- 
junction. At  times,  the  Bible  only  hints  at  the  ex- 
istence of  a  prevalent  custom,  setting  its  approval 
on  the  continued  observance  of  the  same,  but  pro- 
viding no  details  of  the  manner  in  which  it  is  to  be 
observed.  The  language  employed  in  the  Bible  is 
not  always  sufficiently  explicit.  The  figures  of 
speech  used  were  probably  clear  enough  to  the 
people  of  the  time,  but  need  elucidation  for  the 
understanding  of  a  future  generation.  In  all  such 
cases  we  rely  on  the  tradition  as  to  the  meaning  of 
these  laws  handed  down  to  us  by  the  generation 
that  lived  closest  to  the  period  when  they  were  first 
promulgated,  to  whom  these  expressions  and  hints 
were  probably  much  clearer  than  they  could  be  to 
generations  far  removed.     Thus,  alongside  of  the 

230 


Sources  of  Judaism — Tradition 


Bible,  there  was  developed  an  oral  law  for  the  inter- 
pretation and  elaboration  of  its  precepts  and  injunc- 
tions. (Read  Lazarus,  ''Ethics  of  Judaism,"  Vol. 
II,  pp.  145-175.) 

Illustrations. — In  illustration  of  this  process, 
numerous  examples  may  be  cited.  We  shall  men- 
tion only  a  few.  The  law  prohibiting  work  on  the 
Sabbath  day  (Exodus  20:10;  Deuteronomy  5:14) 
gives  no  definition  of  the  term  **work"  and  does  not 
limit  its  application.  There  are,  however,  some 
classes  of  forbidden  labor  recorded  in  other  parts  of 
the  Bible.  Basing  themselves  on  these  references 
and  on  the  traditional  acceptance  of  the  term,  the 
Rabbis  elaborated  and  classified  a  whole  series  of 
"kinds  of  work"  that  may  not  be  done  on  the  Sab- 
bath.    (See  Chapter  II.) 

Similarly,  the  Bible  prescribes :  *'Ye  shall  dwell 
in  booths  (Sukkot)  seven  days"  (Leviticus  23:42). 
To  the  generation  to  which  this  law  was  first  pro- 
claimed, the  terms  ''Sukkah"  and  ''dwell"  were 
probably  clear,  needing  no  further  comment.  A 
future  generation,  however,  must  have  found  the 
law  rather  obscure.  What  is  meant  by  Sukkah? 
How  is  it  to  be  constructed  ?  What  shall  be  its  di- 
mensions? What  material  may  be  used  in  its  con- 
struction? And  again,  does  "dwell"  mean  that  one 
must  remain  in  the  Sukkah  all  the  time?  Should 
it  rain  through  the  flimsy  covering  or  should  the  cold 
be  too  severe  and  trying,  is  one  still  obliged  to  stay 
there?  Tradition  supplied  the  answer  to  most  of 
these  queries,  and  the  Rabbis  later  elaborated  the 
details  and  arranged  them  in  systematic  order. 

The  Bible  does  not  prescribe  any  set  formula  for 
divorce  proceedings.  It  hints,  however,  at  the  ex- 
istence of  a  prevalent  custom  for  the  husband  to 

231 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

prepare  a  document  and  deliver  it  to  his  wife,  a 
process  by  which  the  nuptial  relations  become  sev- 
ered (Deuteronomy  24:1-4).  The  institution  of 
divorce  was  probably  of  common  usage  and  expe- 
rience, so  that  there  was  no  need  to  mention  it. 
Later  generations,  however,  had  to  provide  the 
missing  details  and  prescribe  the  numerous  regula- 
tions regarding  the  form  of  the  document  and  the 
manner  of  its  delivery. 

These  illustrations  indicate  the  course  along  which 
tradition  has  developed  and  progressed.  The  Bibli- 
cal law  was  elaborated  by  the  Rabbis  and  leaders 
of  every  generation,  in  accordance  with  the  demands 
of  the  times  and  the  traditional  meaning  attached 
to  the  laws  by  the  people.  The  spirit  of  the  original 
enactment  was  jealously  preserved  in  the  interpre- 
tation given  to  it  and  in  the  effort  to  make  it  ap- 
plicable to  changed  needs  and  circumstances. 

Extension  and   Modification  of  Biblical  Law. — 

The  leaders  of  thought  in  Judaism  often  found  it 
necessary  to  introduce  new  laws  and  ordinances, 
for  which  provision  was  made  in  the  Bible.  These 
were  intended  mainly  either  to  strengthen  the  ideals 
of  the  Jewish  rehgion,  or  to  commemorate  events 
in  later  Jewish  history,  or  they  were  called  forth  by 
the  exigencies  of  economic  or  political  conditions. 
Some  of  these  laws  were  admittedly  introduced  as 
precautions  against  the  violation  of  a  Biblical  law, 
and  were  known  as  "fences  to  the  Torah."  Other 
laws  were  enacted  as  protests  against  an  objec- 
tionable practice  followed  either  by  the  Jews  them- 
selves or  by  the  people  among  whom  they  lived. 
The  change  from  the  simple  agricultural  life  to  the 
more  complex  commercial  life,  the  loss  of  political 
independence,  the  close  contact  with  other  peoples 

232 


Sources  of  Jiidaisui — Tradition 


and  other  civilizations,  the  wandering  life  that  the 
Jew  had  to  live  during  the  Middle  Ages,  all  these 
conditions  called  forth  new  statutes  and  institutions, 
which  were  promulgated  from  time  to  time  by  the 
Rabbis  and  sages  of  the  successive  generations. 

Important  changes  in  the  life  of  the  Jewish  people 
also  made  many  of  the  Biblical  laws  inapplicable  or 
entirely  obsolete.  Therefore  the  Rabbis  had  to  sanc- 
tion the  abolition  of  such  laws  and  provide  adequate 
substitutes.  The  whole  system  of  sacrifices  and 
Temple  worship,  as  prescribed  by  the  Torah,  fell 
into  desuetude  with  the  destruction  of  the  Temple. 
All  the  agrarian  laws  of  the  Bible,  as  well  as  the 
laws  of  ritual  purity,  became  impractical  after  the 
Jews  were  driven  from  their  land  and  began  the  life 
of  a  wandering  nation.  The  question  as  to  the  sus- 
pension of  these  laws  was  dealt  with  in  great  detail 
by  the  Rabbis  of  those  times  and  the  limits  of  such 
suspension  defmitely  described. 

There  were  also  many  customs  and  practices  in 
vogue,  wdiich,  by  long  usage,  have  become  hallowed 
and  thus  assumed  a  religious  significance.  These 
had  to  be  reviewed  by  the  leaders,  who  either 
ordered  their  rejection  or  sanctioned  their  contin- 
uance, in  accordance  with  the  religious  value  which 
they  possessed.  All  this  was  done  with  extreme 
care  and  great  foresight,  and  all  of  these  later  insti- 
tutions and  customs,  whether  initiated  by  the  lead- 
ers and  adopted  by  the  people,  or  originated  by  the 
people  and  approved  of  by  the  leaders,  were  made  in 
the  spirit  of  the  Bible,  and  whenever  possible,  based 
on  a  Biblical  passage  or  expression.  The  desire  to 
find  Biblical  authority  for  every  law  and  practice  in 
Judaism  often  induced  the  Rabbis  to  do  violence  to 
the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  text  in  order  to  make  it 
fit  a  new  law  or  ordinance.    It  was  felt  by  them  that 

233 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

the  Torah  was  the  supreme  authority  for  Jewish 
life  and  conduct,  and  therefore  everything  in  our 
life  must  have  its  basis  in  that  authority. 

Tradition  Conducive  to  Greater  Freedom. — Jew- 
ish tradition  has  thus  developed  alongside  of  the 
Torah  in  two  ways.  It  amplified  the  prescriptions 
of  the  Torah  so  as  to  make  them  applicable  to  every 
age  and  condition  and  added  new  laws  and  ordi- 
nances enacted  in  the  spirit  of  the  Torah,  as  every 
successive  generation  demanded  them.  By  its  aid 
Jewish  law  lost  its  rigidity  and  became  pliable  in 
the  hands  of  the  great  teachers  and  Rabbis,  who 
made  it  adaptable  to  all  conditions.  Jewish  tradi- 
tion is  not  the  product  of  any  one  age  or  generation. 
It  is  continually  being  unfolded  and  developed,  with 
a  view  to  practical  life  and  healthy  progress.  The 
great  reverence  for  the  Bible  and  the  universal  ac- 
knowledgment of  its  divine  character  precluded  the 
danger  of  its  becoming  superseded  by  the  teachings 
of  the  later  Rabbis.  The  Bible  is  looked  upon  as 
the  constitution  of  the  Jewish  people,  with  the  ad- 
ditional quality  that  nothing  essential  could  be 
added  or  subtracted  from  it  (comp.  Deuteronomy 
4:2).  Tradition  is  regarded  as  the  commentary  and 
by-laws  to  the  constitution.  The  Rabbis  of  every 
generation,  the  accredited  custodians  of  the  Torah 
and  the  acknowledged  religious  leaders,  were  by 
common  consent  considered  the  authoritative  in- 
terpreters of  its  laws  and  provisions.  Their  au- 
thority was  challenged  at  times,  and  the  opposition 
to  tradition  at  times  manifested  itself  even  in  the 
formation  of  sects,  such  as  the  Sadducees  and  the 
Karaites,  but  the  great  body  of  the  Jewish  people 
was  always  on  the  side  of  the  principle  of  freedom 
of  interpretation,  which  was  so  nobly  championed 

234 


Scuu'ccs  of  Jiidaisnt — Tradition 


by  the  Rabbis.  The  literal  fulfillment  of  the  law  of 
the  Torah  would  have  stunted  the  growth  of  Juda- 
ism, and  it  is  doubtful  whether  Judaism  could  have 
maintained  itself  under  such  a  regime  through  all 
these  centuries.  It  was  due  to  the  force  of  the  au- 
thority of  tradition  that  Judaism  could  adapt  itself 
to  the  difficult  position  in  which  it  was  placed  in  the 
Diaspora.  It  made  Judaism  a  living  religion,  re- 
newing its  strength  and  vitality  in  every  age,  ad- 
justing itself  to  the  ever-changing  conditions  and 
circumstances,  but  always  remaining  essentially  the 
same  religion,  based  on  the  same  Torah. 

Development  Most  Democratic. — Few  other  sys- 
tems of  law  developed  along  more  democratic  lines 
than  did  the  Jewish  law.  Tradition,  in  Judaism, 
developed  mainly  during  a  period  when  the  legis- 
lative authorities  had  no  other  means  of  enforcing 
their  decrees  than  the  implicit  confidence  of  the 
people  in  them.  Many  of  the  laws,  as  has  been  in- 
dicated before,  first  originated  with  the  people  and 
the  Rabbis  had  only  to  limit  and  formulate  them. 
Others,  which  were  initiated  by  the  Rabbis,  were 
directly  influenced  by  the  popular  conditions  and  de- 
mands. A  law  became  binding  because  the  people 
desired  it.  Many  laws  and  ordinances  fell  early  into 
desuetude  or  never  enjoyed  general  acceptance, 
merely  because  they  were  too  difficult  of  observance 
or  out  of  harmony  with  the  conditions  under  which 
the  people  lived.  The  Rabbis  candidly  admitted  the 
strength  of  public  opinion  and  its  influence  on  the 
promulgation  of  laws  and  customs,  aiid  when  in 
doubt  about  the  correct  manner  of  the  observance  of 
a  certain  law  they  often  advised  their  disciples  to 
follow  the  prevailing  custom  regarding  it,  which  to 
them  would  have  the  same  force  as  the  regulations 

235 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jcivish  Religion 

enacted  in  the  academy.  With  their  love  for  the 
Torah  and  their  devotion  to  its  precepts,  and  be- 
cause they  regarded  the  observance  of  these  pre- 
cepts as  their  chief  aim  in  Hfe,  surpassing  in  im- 
portance all  considerations  of  personal  comfort  and 
convenience,  the  Jev^ish  people  could  be  relied  upon 
to  follov/  only  such  laws  and  customs  as  preserved 
the  spirit  of  the  Torah,  and  to  abstain  from  practices 
which  might  lead  them  av^ay  from  the  path  of  the 
Torah.  The  Rabbis  recognized  that  spirit  and  fos- 
tered it.  Therefore  they  often  placed  a  popular 
custom  in  a  higher  rank  than  that  occupied  by  insti- 
tutions enacted  after  much  learned  discussion  and 
deliberation. 

The  Law  Not  a  Burden. — The  traditional  law 
which  was  the  outcome  of  a  process  of  development 
during  many  centuries  was,  therefore,  not  a  burden 
imposed  upon  the  people  from  without,  but  the 
natural  expression  of  the  people's  desire  to  perpetu- 
ate their  distinctive  individuaHty  and  to  maintain 
the  religion  by  which  they  are  distinguished,  in  the 
midst  of  hostile  surroundings  and  under  most  diffi- 
cult conditions.  Traditional  laws  and  customs  were 
regarded  by  the  Jews  with  the  same  love  and  affec- 
tion as  those  of  the  Bible  and  were  followed  with 
the  same  readiness  and  devotion.  In  the  course  of 
time  the  distinction  between  tradition  and  Torah 
became  almost  entirely  obliterated,  and  the  term 
Torah  was  no  more  confined  to  the  Five  Books  of 
Moses  only,  but  included  the  works  of  all  the  proph- 
ets, sages,  poets  and  philosophers  that  the  Jews  have 
produced,  who  helped  in  building  up  and  perfecting 
Judaism.  ''The  novel  idea  propounded  by  the  bright 
pupil  at  the  academy  was  already  foretold  to  Moses 
on  Sinai/*  is  the  manner  in  which  the  Rabbis  give 

236 


Sources  of  Judaism — Tradition 


expression  to  this  idea.  The  Jew  considered  him- 
self as  studying  the  word  of  God,  whether  he  read 
from  the  Bible,  from  the  Prophets,  from  the  Talmud, 
from  the  Codes  or  from  an  obscure  moral  or  relig- 
ious work  of  the  Rabbis.  He  felt  that  all  of  these 
were  infused  with  the  same  spirit,  had  the  same  aim 
and  might,  therefore,  be  designated  by  the  same 
general  name. 

It  is,  therefore,  a  mistake  to  speak  of  the  "yoke 
of  the  Law"  as  though  Jewish  life  under  the  law 
were  a  disagreeable  burden.  The  Jews  themselves, 
who  led  that  life  for  so  many  centuries,  never  con- 
sidered the  observance  of  the  law  a  burden,  but 
rather  a  source  of  the  greatest  joy  and  delight.  To 
be  deprived  of  the  observance  of  a  law  was  regarded 
as  a  misfortune,  so  that  the  purport  of  many  of  the 
prayers  and  supplications  for  a  restoration  to  Pales- 
tine, found  in  the  prayer-book,  was  not  so  much  the 
desire  to  enjoy  again  a  separate  political  existence 
as  the  yearning  for  the  privilege  to  be  permitted 
again  to  observe  the  many  laws  and  customs  the 
observance  of  which  became  impossible  in  exile. 
The  very  multiplicity  of  the  regulations  concerning 
the  keeping  of  the  Sabbath,  or  the  dietary  laws,  tes- 
tifies to  the  love  the  people  bore  these  institutions 
and  to  their  anxiety  to  have  them  observed  in  every 
detail,  so  as  not  to  fail  in  complying  with  the  least 
requirement. 

Nor  is  it  true  that  the  multiplicity  of  laws  and 
customs  tended  towards  suppressing  the  higher  re- 
ligious emotions  and  stunting  the  growth  of  the 
prophetic  ideals  of  a  lofty  morality,  as  has  often 
been  claimed  by  recent  critics  of  Judaism.  The  love 
of  the  Law  and  the  delight  in  its  observance  ema- 
nated directly  from  the  great  love  for  God  and  the 
desire  to  do  what  He  would  have  us  do.    The  yearn- 

237 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

ing  for  communion  with  God  found  its  expression  in 
Jewish  life,  not  only  in  a  set  number  of  prayers, 
but  in  every  detail  of  life  as  regulated  by  Jewish 
law.  Every  religious  act  was  called  a  ''Mizwah,"  a 
commandment  from  God,  and  in  doing  a  Mizwah 
the  Jew  always  felt  that  he  was  complying  with  the 
will  of  God.  As  to  the  moral  value  of  the  Law,  we 
need  produce  no  more  convincing  testimony  than 
the  actual  life  of  the  Jew  under  the  Law  throughout 
the  ages.  The  prophetic  ideals  of  justice,  righteous- 
ness and  charity  found  their  concrete  application  in 
the  prescriptions  of  the  Law  and  remained  vital 
influences  in  Jewish  life  because  of  this  concrete  ap- 
plication. The  same  law  that  emphasizes  the  mi- 
nute ritual  ceremonies  and  observances  of  Judaism 
also  lays  the  greatest  stress  on  the  moral  duties 
of  the  individual  and  of  the  community  and  exalts 
the  fine  ideals  of  a  lofty  morality,  as  set  forth  by 
the  prophets  and  elaborated  by  the  sages  of  Israel. 
A  faithful  description  of  the  organization  of  the 
smallest  Jewish  community  in  the  Middle  Ages  wall 
establish  conclusively  the  contention  that  the  Law 
gave  strength  and  life  to  the  spiritual  and  moral 
ideals  of  the  leaders  and  teachers  of  Israel.  (Read 
Schechter,  ''Studies  in  Judaism,"  chap.  IX  ;  "Aspects 
of  Rabbinic  Theology,"  chaps.  VIII-XII ;  Abra- 
hams, ''Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  passim.) 

Doctrine  and  Law  in  Jewish  Tradition. — With 
the  change  of  conditions  and  with  the  progress  of 
the  human  mind,  the  religious  principles  and  be- 
liefs set  forth  in  the  Bible  also  underwent  a  process 
of  interpretation  and  elaboration.  Every  generation 
studied  the  Bible  in  the  light  of  its  own  experience 
and  its  own  convictions  and  interpreted  the  divine 
word  in  harmony  with  its  own  state  of  mind,  al- 

238 


Sources  of  Judaism — Tradition 


though  always  guided  and  directed  by  the  accepted 
meaning  of  the  text  as  handed  down  from  age  to 
age.  Thus,  there  arose  a  series  of  expositions  of  the 
doctrines  and  truths  of  the  Bible,  influenced  by  the 
changes  in  the  environments  and  conditions  of  the 
succeeding  ages.  In  these  expositions  we  often  de- 
tect also  the  influences  of  a  foreign  culture  and  of 
alien  ideals.  The  contact  of  Judaism  with  the  va- 
rious schools  of  philosophic  thought  in  the  ancient 
and  modern  world  could  not  but  exert  a  potent  in- 
fluence upon  the  thinkers  and  moulders  of  Jewish 
opinion  and  belief.  It  frequently  served  as  a  stimu- 
lus to  Jewish  teachers  to  review  their  own  faith  in 
the  light  of  the  new  culture  with  which  they  became 
acquainted,  but  it  rarely  afifected  the  vital  doctrines 
of  Judaism.  Jewish  homilists  and  philosophers  ap- 
proached every  new  idea  or  opinion  with  the  firm 
conviction  that  the  Bible  was  the  divine  word  and 
therefore  absolutely  true.  If  the  conclusions  of 
another  civilization  are  out  of  harmony  with  the 
teachings  of  the  Bible,  either  the  new  opinion  is 
faulty  or  our  understanding  of  the  Biblical  text  is 
defective.  This  conviction  being  deeply  set  and 
jealously  guarded,  the  main  principles  of  Judaism 
suffered  nothing  from  the  new  light  thrown  upon 
them  from  without.  On  the  contrary,  they  became 
enriched  and  expanded,  assumed  new  values  and 
new  significances  by  comparison  with  other  sys- 
tems and  beliefs.  And  if  an  alien  idea  or  belief  was 
borrowed  here  and  there  and  incorporated  with 
Jewish  doctrines,  it  was  immediately  given  the 
stamp  of  the  peculiar  Jewish  mode  of  thought  and 
invested  with  the  lofty  spirituality  characteristic  of 
the  Jewish  religion. 
^  The  teachings  of  Judaism  regarding  God  and  man, 
sin   and    repentance,    reward   and   punishment,   the 

239 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

future  world  and  the  Messiah,  which  were  gradually 
unfolded  and  developed  in  Biblical  times,  were  thus 
further  elaborated  and  amplified  by  the  teachers  and 
preachers  of  every  generation,  and  later  investigated 
and  systematized  by  the  philosophers  who  endeav- 
ored to  reduce  them  to  definite  dogmas.  The  preach- 
ers and  the  homilists  usually  based  their  expositions 
on  a  Biblical  text,  interpreting  it  with  a  view  to 
making  it  teach  a  moral  or  religious  lesson.  They 
often  deviated  considerably  from  the  literal  meaning 
of  the  passage  in  order  to  establish  and  strengthen 
the  lesson  they  wished  to  inculcate  and  emphasize. 
The  later  Jewish  philosophers,  however,  investi- 
gated the  Jewish  doctrines  more  independently, 
criticised  them  and  compared  them  with  other  sys- 
tems, but  they  also  always  sought  to  fortify  their 
conclusions  by  reference  to  Biblical  texts. 

These  teachings  and  investigations  were  always 
held  in  due  respect,  but  they  were  never  vested  with 
the  same  authority  as  was  the  Law.  The  emphasis 
laid  by  Judaism  on  conduct  rather  than  on  creed,  on 
holy  living  rather  than  on  correct  thinking,  placed 
these  speculations  in  a  less  important  position  than 
the  discussions  about  the  laws  and  institutions  of 
Judaism.  The  importance  of  a  set  system  of  dogmas 
and  beliefs  and  their  tremendous  value  in  moulding 
the  character  of  the  community  was  always  recog- 
nized by  the  Jewish  people,  but  they  were  satisfied 
to  leave  the  speculation  about  them  to  the  special- 
ists, the  teachers  and  thinkers  of  every  generation, 
while  they  themselves  carried  out  the  laws  and  regu- 
lations, i.e.,  the  concrete  exemplifications  of  the  es- 
sential doctrines  of  Judaism,  in  practical  life.  The 
number  of  Jewish  dogmas,  their  relative  importance 
and  their  exact  limitations  were,  therefore,  never 
definitely  fixed,  because  the  discussions  about  them 

240 


Sources  of  Juilaisin — Tradition 


were  removed  from  popular  concern  and  interest. 
Even  the  thirteen  articles  of  the  creed  of  Maimon- 
ides,  which  have  enjoyed  extensive  popularity  and 
were  incorporated,  in  various  forms,  in  the  prayer- 
book,  remained  in  a  fluid  state,  permitting  of  most 
diverse  interpretations  and  applications.  Thus  the 
interpretations  of  the  religious  principles  and  beliefs 
of  the  Bible  carried  with  them  only  the  authority 
of  the  person  or  persons  who  presented  them  or 
formulated  them,  while  the  traditional  legal  com- 
ments and  enactments  were  invested  with  the  high 
authority  of  popular  acceptance  and  were  placed 
side  by  side  with  the  laws  and  precepts  of  the  Bible. 

The  Compilation  of  Tradition. — The  institutions 
and  legal  enactments  of  the  early  Rabbis,  the  scribes 
and  the  Tannaim,  as  well  as  the  discussions  about 
the  Law  carried  on  in  the  academies,  were  for  a  long 
time  preserved  orally  only.  There  existed  a  certain 
feeling  against  writing  down  the  traditions,  although 
there  was  no  distinct  prohibition  against  it,  and 
some  of  the  Rabbis  probably  had  some  collections 
for  their  own  private  use.  When  the  mass  of  tradi- 
tion became  too  bulky  and  too  unwieldy  and  the 
fear  was  entertained  that  much  of  it  might  be  for- 
gotten in  the  course  of  time,  attempts  were  made  by 
different  Rabbis  to  compile  the  traditional  law  in  a 
systematic  manner. 

The  first  successful  attempt  to  compile  the  whole 
mass  of  tradition  was  made  by  R.  Judah,  the  Prince 
or  the  Holy  (189  C.  E.).  This  compilation  is  called 
the  Mishnah  (literally,  repetition,  study),  and  it  is 
divided  into  six  large  divisions  (Sedarin,  literally, 
Orders),  as  follows: 

1.  Zera'im  (Seeds).  Laws  pertaining  to  agri- 
culture. 

241 


Methods  of  Teaching  iJic  Jci^'ish  Religion 

2.  Mo'ed  (Festival).  Laws  pertaining  to  the 
observance  of  the  Sabbath  and  the  festivals. 

3.  Nashim  (Women).  Laws  of  marriage  and 
divorce. 

4.  Nezikin  (Damages).  Laws  pertaining  to  civil 
and  criminal  cases,  as  well  as  to  the  administration 
of  the  law. 

5.  Kodoshim  (Holy  Things),  Laws  pertaining 
to  the  sacrifices. 

6.  Tohorot  (Purity).  Laws  pertaining  to  ritual 
purity. 

Each  one  of  these  large  divisions  is  again  sub- 
divided into  treatises  (Masechtot)  and  each  Ma- 
sechet  into  chapters  and  paragraphs. 

In  the  Mishnah  the  traditional  law  is  set  forth 
without  the  argumentation  and  discussion  that  cen- 
tered around  it  in  the  academy,  although  the  diverg- 
ent views  of  the  dififerent  Rabbis  about  a  particular 
law  are  faithfully  given.  Even  the  dissenting  opin- 
ion of  a  single  Rabbi  against  that  of  the  majority  of 
his  contemporaries  was  carefully  preserved  by  the 
compiler.  The  Mishnah  could  not,  therefore,  serve 
as  a  code  of  laws,  since  the  law  is  not  placed  there 
in  a  definite  and  decisive  manner.  It  was  intended 
more  to  preserve  the  tradition  than  to  be  a  guide 
of  life  to  the  people,  as  is  further  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  nearly  one-half  of  its  contents  is  occupied 
with  laws  and  provisions  that  could  have  no  prac- 
tical application  at  the  time  of  its  compilation. 

After  the  Mishnah  was  compiled  it  became  the 
subject  of  study  and  investigation  by  the  later 
Rabbis  (Amoraim),  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
Bible  was  by  the  former  Rabbis  (Tannaim).  These 
discussions  and  investigations  (Gemara)  were  also 
carefully  preserved  and  later  compiled  (about  550 
C.  E.)  into  what  is  known  as  the  Babylonian  Tal- 

242 


Sources  of  Judaism — Tradition 


mud.  The  Gemara,  the  discussion  and  elaboration 
of  the  Mishnah,  is  here  grouped  about  the  Mishnah 
itself,  so  that  the  Talmud  really  contains  both  the 
Mishnah  and  the  Gemara.  An  earlier  redaction  of 
the  Talmud  was  compiled  about  150  years  pre- 
viously in  Palestine,  known  as  the  Palestinian  Tal- 
mud, but  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  for  various  rea- 
sons, has  enjoyed  a  much  wider  popularity  and  is 
the  one  usually  referred  to  when  the  Talmud  is 
ruoted. 

As  will  be  noticed,  neither  the  Mishnah  nor  the 
Talmud  finally  settled  the  laws  in  a  decisive  man- 
ner. The  living  word  of  the  Rabbis  of  each  genera- 
tion had  to  be  consulted  in  all  doubtful  cases.  Fre- 
quently, when  the  importance  of  the  case  warranted 
it  or  when  the  question  came  from  another  locality, 
the  Rabbi  would  write  out  his  decision  in  the  form 
of  a  brief,  supporting  his  standpoint  with  quotations 
from  earlier  authorities.  In  the  course  of  time  a 
large  number  of  these  questions  and  answers  (Re- 
sponsa)  were  accumulated,  so  that  they  now  form 
a  considerable  portion  of  Jewish  literature  and  serve 
as  precedents  in  the  decision  of  doubtful  cases. 

Attempts  were  made  at  various  times  to  codify 
the  great  mass  of  Jewish  traditional  law.  The  most 
noteworthy  of  these  codes  are  the  Mishnah  Torah 
(Secondary  Law)  or  Yad  ha-Hazakah  (The  Strong 
Hand)  of  Moses  Maimonides ;  the  Turim  (literally. 
Columns),  of  Jacob  b.  Asher  (about  1340)  and  the 
Shulhan  'Aruch  (Prepared  Table)  of  Joseph  Caro 
(1554).  The  last  mentioned  is  the  recognized  au- 
thority for  all  matters  of  religious  law  and  practice 
among  observant  Jews. 

Although  the  Talmud  apparently  aims  chiefly  to 
preserve  legal  traditions,  it  also  contains  much  that 
is  of  a  purely  homiletic  nature,  wherein  are  mirrored 

243 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

the  religious  principles  and  beliefs  of  the  time.  This 
portion  of  the  Talmud  which  deals  with  homiletic 
interpretations  of  Biblical  texts  is  known  as  Agada, 
as  distinguished  from  the  Halachah,  the  legal  part 
of  the  Talmud  (read  Deutsch  "The  Talmud,"  pp. 
24-5).  Special  collections  of  these  Agadot,  usually 
in  the  form  of  running  commentaries  to  the  Penta- 
teuch, were  made  by  later  Rabbis  under  the  general 
name  of  Midrash  Adaga,  or  Midrash.  A  more  sys- 
tematic investigation  of  the  religious  doctrines  and 
principles  of  Judaism  was  instituted  by  the  philoso- 
phers of  the  Middle  Ages,  who  lived  under  Arabic 
influence.  The  most  noted  among  them  are  Saadia 
Gaon  (10th  Century)  ;  Bachya  ben  Joseph  ibn  Pak'u- 
dah  (11th  Century);  Judah  Halevi  (12th  Century), 
and  Moses  Maimonides  (12th  Century). 

RESUME 

The  development  of  Jewish  tradition,  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  Torah,  was  both  intensive  and  extensive. 
It  helped  to  clarify  the  Biblical  text  so  as  to  make 
it  understood  by  generations  removed  from  the 
Biblical  period,  and  added  new  regulations  and  in- 
stitutions, in  the  spirit  of  the  legislation  of  the 
Torah,  as  time  and  changed  conditions  demanded 
them.  It  followed  the  natural  process  of  growth  and 
expansion,  making  Judaism  a  living  religion  that 
aims  to  regulate  all  details  of  life  and  conduct. 

Jewish  law  has  thereby  become  elastic  and  pli- 
able in  the  trusted  hands  of  the  Rabbis  and  sages  of 
Israel.  Always  mindful  of  the  original  intent  of 
every  law  and  ordinance,  they  still  succeeded  in  mak- 
ing it  adaptable  to  the  circumstances  of  every  age. 
Their  authority  was  derived  solely  from  the  implicit 
confidence  placed  in  them  by  the  people,  and  they  in 

244 


/ 


Sources  of  Judaism — Tradition 


turn  had  the  highest  respect  and  regard  for  the 
needs  and  requirements  of  the  people.  Many  tra- 
ditional laws  and  customs  had  their  origin  in  popu- 
lar practice  first. 

Consciously  or  unconsciously,  the  Jews  saw  in  the 
Law  and  its  observance  the  source  of  their,  strength 
and  continued  existence  as  a  distinct  people.  They 
observed  all  the  details  of  the  Law  not  merely  as  a 
matter  of  duty,  but  because  they  loved  to  practise 
them.  The  Law  was  looked  upon  as  the  word  of 
God,  and  in  its  observance  the  Jew  felt  that  he  was 
doing  the  will  of  God.  This  feeling  was  sufficient 
to  fill  his  heart  with  joy  at  the  privilege  of  being 
permitted  to  do  the  command  of  God,  to  follow  all 
the  legal  prescriptions  and  to  guard  most  jealously 
against  the  violation  of  any  of  them.  The  Law  thus 
strengthened  and  fostered  the  highest  religious 
ideals  and  helped  the  Jew  to  come  closer  to  his  God. 
The  lofty  moral  ideals  of  Judaism  also  found  their 
concrete  expression  in  the  legal  enactments  of  the 
Rabbis  and  remained  in  the  permanent  possession  of 
the  Jewish  people  through  their  being  reduced  to 
definite  legal  formulae. 

The  doctrines  of  Judaism  were  also  developed  and 
amplified  in  the  process  of  traditional  interpretation. 
It  was,  however,  to  the  legal  traditions  that  the 
people  lent  their  allegiance  most  readily.^  The 
presentation  of  Jewish  belief  and  dogma  in  the 
works  of  Jewish  homilists  and  philosophers,  while 
held  in  high  respect  by  the  people,  did  not  carry 
with  it  the  same  authority  as  did  the  law.  The  in- 
terpretations given  to  the  beliefs  and  principles  of 
Judaism  by  the  later  sages  and  philosophers  carried 
with  them  only  the  authority  of  the  person  who 
promulgated  them.  They  were  removed  from  the 
ken  and  from  the  interests  of  the  people,  whose  ad- 

245 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

herence    and    approval    were    practically    the    only 
source  of  Rabbinic  authority  in  the  Diaspora. 

The  great  mass  of  tradition  was  later  compiled 
in  several  collections,  and  still  later  codified  and 
systematized.  The  Talmud,  the  most  comprehen- 
sive collection  of  Jewish  tradition,  contains  the  re- 
sult of  Jewish  intellectual  activity  extending  over 
a  period  of  nearly  eight  centuries.  It  is,  next  to  the 
Bible,  the  most  widely  studied  and  the  most  exten- 
sively recognized  Jewish  literary  work.  The  greater 
portion  of  subsequent  Jewish  literary  endeavor  cen- 
ters around  this  great  work,  which  has  always  been 
regarded  as  the  authoritative  source  of  Jewish  re- 
ligious life  and  practice. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Show  the  need  of  traditional  explanation  of 
Biblical  law.  Quote  examples  not  mentioned  in  this 
lesson. 

2.  Indicate  how  tradition  developed  extensively. 
How  did  the  change  of  conditions  in  Jewish  life 
make  it  necessary  to  introduce  new  laws  and  modify 
the  old  laws  of  the  Torah? 

3.  "Tradition  is  conducive  to  greater  freedom 
of  interpretation."  Explain  this  statement,  quoting 
an  example. 

4.  Whence  did  the  Rabbis  derive  their  authority? 
Explain. 

5.  What  was  the  attitude  of  the  people  toward 
these  laws?  Explain  the  extension  in  the  meaning 
of  the  term  "Torah." 

6.  In  what  manner  were  the  religious  and  moral 
ideals  of  the  Jewish  people  aiYected  by  the  growth 
of  traditional  law? 

246 


Sources  of  Judaism — Tradition 


7.  Explain  the  difference  in  the  development  of 
tradition  in  Law  and  in  Doctrine.  What  was  the 
difference  in  the  attitude  of  the  people  toward  the 
two? 

8.  Explain  the  terms:  Mishnah,  Gemara  and 
Talmud.  Name  the  six  grand  divisions  of  the  Mish- 
nah. 

9.  Name  the  code  that  is  now  the  recognized 
authority  for  observant  Jews.  Give  the  name  of  its 
author  and  the  date  of  its  compilation. 

10.  Distinguish  between  Halachah  and  Agada. 
Mention  the  names  of  a  few  of  the  philosophers  who 
endeavored  to  formulate  a  Jewish  creed. 


247 


XVIII.     REWARD  AND  PUNISHMENT 

God  Is  Our  Judge. — Endowed  with  conscience 
and  fortified  with  Revelation,  man,  a  free  agent, 
becomes  responsible  to  God  for  all  his  actions. 
Enabled  to  distinguish  between  right  and  wrong,  by 
the  help  of  his  conscience,  and  of  the  guide  for  life 
that  religion  supplies,  and  free  to  follow  the  right 
and  to  avoid  the  wrong,  man  is  held  accountable 
before  God  for  all  his  thoughts  and  deeds.  That 
God  holds  us  so  accountable  is  affirmed  both  by 
our  religion  and  by  our  own  conviction.  We  feel 
that  God  is  interested  in  our  lives  and  concerned 
about  our  welfare.  He  knows  the  innermost 
thoughts  of  our  hearts  and  desires,  our  constant 
progress  toward  holiness  and  perfection.  We  be- 
lieve that  our  good  deeds  are  received  by  Him  with 
favor,  while  our  evil  deeds  call  forth  His  dis- 
pleasure. We  are  convinced  that  God  is  our  Judge, 
determining  the  value  of  our  actions,  conferring  His 
blessings  upon  those  who  follow  in  His  ways  and 
do  His  will,  and  causing  misery  and  wretchedness  to 
those  who  disobey  His  laws  and  deviate  from  the 
path  of  virtue.  Perfect  in  His  justice  toward  us, 
and  in  His  love  of  us.  His  human  children,  God  deals 
out  recompense  for  the  use  we  are  making  of  the 
life  given  to  us  and  of  the  divine  gifts  vouchsafed 
unto  us. 

This  conviction  is  borne  out  by  numerous  ref- 
erences to  the  belief  in  Reward  and  Punishment 
found  in  the  Bible  and  in  later  Jewish  writings. 
"Great  in  counsel,  and  mighty  in  work,  whose  eyes 
are  open  upon  all  the  ways  of  the  sons  of  man,  to 

248 


Reiuard  ami  Pniiishriient 


give  every  one  according  to  his  ways,  and  according 
to  the  fruit  of  his  doings"  (Jeremiah  32:19).  The 
Bible  repeatedly  emphasizes  the  great  truth  that 
virtue  is  as  certain  of  God's  reward  as  is  vice  of  His 
punishment.  The  human  struggle  for  virtue  and  for 
a  holy  life  is  looked  upon  by  God  with  great  sympa- 
thy, and  is  sure  to  receive  His  encouragement  and 
support.  Persistence  in  sin,  wilful  neglect  of  duty, 
are  as  sure  to  bring  retribution.  *T  the  Lord  thy 
God  am  a  jealous  God,  visiting  the  iniquity  of  the 
fathers  upon  the  children  unto  the  third  and  fourth 
generation  of  them  that  hate  Me;  and  showing 
mercy  unto  the  thousandth  generation  of  them  that 
love  Me  and  keep  My  commandments."  (Exodus 
20:5,  6).  Indeed,  the  divine  law  prescribes  penal- 
ties for  certain  crimes  and  leaves  their  execution  to 
human  courts.  ''Man,"  however,  "looketh  on  the 
outward  appearance,  but  the  Lord  looketh  on  the 
heart."  (I  Samuel  16:7).  Only  God,  who  knows 
the  hidden  thoughts  of  man  and  examines  the  mo- 
tives for  his  actions,  can  be  relied  on  to  execute  per- 
fect justice.  The  actions  of  men  and  of  nations  are 
weighed  by  Him,  their  motives  are  scrutinized  and 
their  fates  are  decided  on  in  absolute  justice  and 
fairness.  "The  Rock,  His  work  is  perfect;  for  all 
His  ways  are  justice;  a  God  of  faithfulness,  and 
without  iniquity,  just  and  right  is  He"  (Deuteron- 
omy 32:4). 

God's  Retribution  and  His  Mercy.— In  the  eyes 
of  the  Jewish  prophets,  psalmists  and  sages,  God's 
retribution  was  not  a  sign  of  His  anger,  but 
the  expression  of  His  great  love  for  His  human 
children.  'Tt  is  good  for  me  that  I  have  been  af- 
flicted in  order  that  I  might  learn  Thy  statutes" 
(Psalm  119:71),  and  the  ancient  proverb:  *'Whom 

249 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezuish  Religion 


the  Lord  loveth  He  corrcctetb,  even  as  a  father,  the 
son  in  whom  he  deHghteth"  (Proverbs  3:12),  bears 
out  the  general  attitude  to  divine  punishment  in 
ancient  Israel.  This  is  also  v^hat  the  Rabbis  meant 
by  referring  to  God's  retribution  as  the  "pangs  of 
love."  God's  punishments  are  not  vindictive,  but 
corrective.  He  visits  His  punishment  upon  us  be- 
cause He  loves  us  all,  even  the  sinner  who  has 
wandered  from  the  path  of  righteousness.  To  allow 
wickedness  and  vice  to  remain  unpunished  would 
not  be  an  act  of  love,  but  rather  a  sign  of  lack  of  in- 
terest in  human  affairs,  a  lack  of  love  for  the  chil- 
dren of  man.  God's  justice  and  God's  love  both  de- 
mand just  and  equable  retribution.  They  are  two 
aspects  of  the  divine  nature,  working  in  harmony 
and  supplementing  one  another  in  the  relations  of 
God  to  man. 

God's  justice  is  not  only  tempered  with  mercy, 
but  is  almost  identical  with  it.  "Righteousness  and 
justice  are  the  foundation  of  Thy  throne ;  mercy  and 
truth  go  before  Thee"  (Psalms  89:15).  In  chastis- 
ing the  sinner,  God  seeks  not  so  much  his  punish- 
ment as  his  ultimate  return  to  virtue.  "As  I  live, 
saith  the  Lord  God,  I  have  no  pleasure  in  the  death 
of  the  wicked,  but  that  the  wicked  turn  from  his 
way  and  live"  (Ezekiel  33:11;  comp.  ib.  18:21-32; 
Isaiah  55 :7).  There  is  a  Midrashic  interpretation  of 
Genesis  1 :31,  "and  behold  it  was  very  good,"  which 
brings  out  this  thought  most  beautifully.  The  Rab- 
bis declare  that  the  expression,  "it  was  very  good," 
refers  to  the  attribute  of  God  which  causes  good- 
ness and  joy  to  come  to  the  world,  while  the  con- 
junction "and"  includes  also  the  attribute  of  God 
which  brings  pain  into  the  world.  The  question  is 
naturally  asked.  How  can  pain  and  punishment  be 
regarded  as  good?    To  this  the  following  answer  is 

250 


Rczcard  and  Punishment 


given:  Pain  is  as  much  of  a  good  as  is  joy  and 
pleasure,  because  through  it  man  may  achieve  a  por- 
tion in  the  world  to  come.  Thus  also,  Solomon  said, 
"Reproof  and  instruction  are  the  way  of  life"  (Prov- 
erbs 6:23).  The  way  of  life  here  refers  to  the 
future,  eternal  life,  to  which  man  is  brought  by 
means  of  suffering  and  pain.  God's  goodness^  is 
manifested,  not  only  when  we  are  privileged  to  enjoy 
the  goods  of  the  world,  but  also  when  we  are  bur- 
dened with  woe  and  misery,  when  punishment  over- 
takes us,  because  through  them^  we  come  to  see 
more  clearly  the  purpose  of  our  life  and  in  how  far 
we  have  failed  of  that  purpose. 

It  is  especially  in  His  deaUngs  with  the  penitent 
sinner  that  God's  supreme  love  and  mercy  become 
manifest.  Forgiveness  is  the  most  blessed  assur- 
ance that  religion  extends  to  the  repentant  sinner. 
It  does  not  necessarily  absolve  from  punishment, 
but  it  inspires  the  prodigal  son  with  hope  that  he 
will  be  received  again  in  mercy  and  pardon  by  his 
Father,  to  Whom  he  would  return  in^  truth.  Sin 
will  not  escape  punishment,  but  the  sinner  is  not 
entirely  lost.  That  the  repentant  sinner,  even  more 
so  than  the  purely  righteous  man,  is  certain  of  God's 
love  and  forgiveness,  is  the  assurance  given  us  by 
the  Rabbis.  God's  love  is  manifested  in  His  dis- 
pensation of  justice  among  men,  but  more  con- 
cretely in  His  dealings  with  the  wayward  and  those 
who  stumbled  and  yielded  to  temptation.  Their 
punishment  will  come,  but  a  place  is  reserved  for 
them  in  the  immediate  presence  of  God,  if  they  sin- 
cerely regret  their  conduct  and  seek  to  return  to 
virtue  and  piety. 

Manner  of  Dispensation  of  God's  Justice. — It  is 
impossible  for  us  to  determine  the  exact  manner  in 

251 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

which  God  deals  out  rewards  and  punishments  to 
men.  God's  ways  are  inscrutable  and  we  shall  only 
meet  with  disappointment  should  we  try  to  unveil 
the  mystery  in  which  His  relations  with  men  is 
shrouded.  We  often  see  the  righteous  suffer  and 
the  wicked  prosper  and  we  begin  to  question  God's 
justice.  This  has  ever  been  the  perplexing  question 
of  humanity  and  has  occupied  the  attention  of  many 
a  thinker  and  philosopher,  Jew  and  Gentile.  The 
whole  book  of  Job,  according  to  many  interpreters, 
is  nothing  else  but  an  attempt  to  solve  this  difficulty. 
Job,  apparently  a  righteous  man,  possessed  of  many 
virtues  and  praised  by  God  Himself  for  his  piety  and 
uprightness,  is  suddenly  stricken  with  many  mis- 
fortunes. His  friends,  who  come  to  comfort  him, 
try  to  convince  Job  that  his  sufferings  must  be  re- 
garded as  retribution  for  sins  that  he  committed. 
Job  is  not  satisfied  and  persists  in  his  query,  until 
God  appears  on  the  scene  and  rebukes  Job  for  his 
presumptuous  query  and  also  his  friends  for  their 
incorrect  reasoning.  In  a  series  of  striking  illustra- 
tions, God  demonstrates  to  them  how  futile  it  is  on 
the  part  of  man  to  endeavor  to  discover  the  ways  of 
God,  which  are  so  different,  so  far  exalted  above 
human  reasoning,  that  men  cannot  comprehend 
them. 

And  this  is  the  only  answer  that  we  can  offer  to 
this  problem,  unsatisfying  though  it  is.  We  know 
that  God  is  good,  that  He  is  perfectly  just.  We  have 
sufficient  proof  of  that  every  moment  of  our  lives. 
Whatever  proceeds  from  Him,  therefore,  must  be 
good  and  just.  "All  that  the  Merciful  One  doeth. 
He  doeth  for  the  best,"  is  a  favorite  saying  of  the 
Rabbis.  When  we  see  the  wicked  person  prosper, 
we  should  first  question  the  soundness  of  our  judg- 
ment, before  we  proceed  to  criticise  God's  ways.    Is 

252 


Rezvard  and  Punishment 


our  opinion  of  his  wickedness  correct?  May  he  not 
possess  traits  of  nobiHty  entirely  hidden  from  our 
sight?  And  again,  is  what  appears  to  us  as  pros- 
perity really  a  blessing  to  him?  May  it  not  be  the 
source  of  greatest  misery  in  the  end?  Similarly, 
when  we  are  perplexed  at  the  sight  of  the  sufferings 
to  which  an  apparently  righteous  man  is  subjected, 
we  might  ask  ourselves  the  same  questions.  Our 
opinions  of  human  goodness  and  wickedness,  of  hu- 
man happiness  and  misery,  often  proceed  from  a 
narrow,  petty  view  of  life  and  its  destiny.  Even  in 
our  own  limited  experiences  there  are  occasions 
when  we  readily  admit  our  short-sightedness  and 
realize  the  blessing  of  God  in  being  deprived  of  some 
apparent  prosperity,  which  might  have  brought 
upon  us  untold  woes  and  misfortunes.  God's  ways 
may  be  unintelligible  to  us,  but  they  are  un- 
doubtedly the  best,  and  it  behooves  us  to^  resign 
ourselves  to  them  in  perfect  faith  and  implicit 
confidence. 

In  the  same  manner  should  be  viewed  also  gen- 
eral calamities  that  may  affect  lands  and  nations. 
From  our  limited  point  of  view,  these  may  seem 
unnecessary,  almost  cruel.  Great  upheavals,  destruc- 
tive wars,  devastating  plagues  that  plunge  millions 
into  misery  and  baffle  the  intelligence  of  men,  are 
brought  into  the  world,  in  order  to  impress  upon 
humanity  some  great  lesson,  which,  when  learned, 
will  result  in  untold  blessings  to  the  race.  Why 
God  should  choose  this  particular  method,  apd  not 
one  which  would  appear  to  us  more  merciful,  is 
known  to  Him  alone.  We  must  be  content  with  the 
conviction  that  God  is  perfect  in  wisdom,  justice 
and  love  and  that  His  wisdom,  justice  and  love  are 
operative  not  only  when  we  are  enjoying  peace  and 
prosperity,  but  also  when  we  are  confronted  with 

253 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

the  harrowing  scenes  of  ruin,  sickness  and  death. 
We  should  learn  to  repeat  on  every  occasion  the 
words  of  the  famous  Rabbi  of  the  Talmud,  "this  also 
is  for  the  best."  (Read  to  the  class  the  story  as  told 
in  Jack  Myers'  "Jewish  Story  Book,"  pp.  46-55). 

Virtue  Its  Own  Reward. — Recognizing  our  in- 
ability to  comprehend  fully  God's  methods  in  ad- 
ministering justice  in  the  world,  we  are  still  not 
entirely  deprived  of  concrete  proof  of  it  in  our  own 
lives  and  in  history.  In  our  search  for  a  solution  of 
the  more  unusual  and  perplexing  phenomena  of  life, 
we  are  prone  to  overlook  the  ordinary,  every-day 
occurrences,  with  which  we  are  familiar.  We  con- 
stantly see  sin  bringing  woe  and  misery  to  its  perpe- 
trators and  virtue  affording  bliss  and  happiness  to 
Its  adherents.  The  inexorable  physical  laws  of  God 
demand  and  obtain  their  tribute  from  the  one  who 
indulges  in  vice.  He  will  reap  misery  and  sickness 
and  the  world's  contempt  who  has  sown  incon- 
tinence and  vice.  The  unscrupulous  man  who  pros- 
pers on  the  labors  of  others  and  whose  crooked 
ways  have  brought  him  wealth,  position  and  the 
other  desirable  things  of  life,  does  not  always  es- 
cape punishment  that  is  due  him.  If  the  world  is 
unable  to  detect  his  wickedness  and  check  his  prog- 
ress, he  often  finds  his  punishment  in  the  retribution 
meted  out  to  him  by  his  own  conscience,  the  voice 
of  God  within  him,  in  the  form  of  terrible  regret, 
life-embittering  remorse. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  man  who  has  kept  up  a 
constant  struggle  against  sin,  who  has  endeavored 
to  live  in  accordance  with  God's  law,  and  has  kept 
his  name  spotless,  is  bound  to  receive  the  recogni- 
tion due  him  and  secure  the  blessings  that  go  to 
make  up  happiness.     But,  even  though  he  be  af* 

254 


Rczcanl  and  Pnnisluncnt 


flicted  with  suffering  and  poverty,  he  may  still  be 
most  happy  in  his  faith.  The  very  consciousness  of 
an  upright  life  is  a  source  of  much  happiness  and 
many  blessings.  Every  man  has  experienced  such 
feeling  of  happiness  at  one  time  or  another  in  his 
life.  A  child  who  gives  up  something. for  charity, 
depriving  himself  thereby  of  a  coveted  pleasure,  or 
tells  his  teacher  the  truth,  thereby  exposing  him- 
self to  punishment,  still  experiences  a  feeling  of 
satisfaction  in  having  done  the  right  thing,  and  this 
in  itself  is  sufficient  reward  for  him.  The  pious  man, 
possessed  of  an  implicit  faith  in  the  goodness  of 
God,  ever  striving  to  commune  with  Him  and  to 
pattern  his  life  after  the  divine  attributes,  derives 
the  greatest  blessings  from  the  very  conduct  and 
discipline  to  which  he  voluntarily  submits.  The 
feeling  that  his  actions  meet  with  the  approval  of 
God  fully  compensates  him  for  any  discomfort  or 
pain  that  he  may  suffer.  He  is  as  truly  rewarded 
by  his  virtue  as  the  profligate  is  punished  through 
his  own  wickedness. 

While  emphasizing  the  idea  of  recompense  and 
making  it  a  dogma  of  Judaism,  Jewish  teachers  just 
as  emphatically  warn  against  making  it  a  motive ^  for 
right  action.  Love  of  God  and  the  desire  to  imitate 
Him  and  not  fear  of  punishment  or  the  desire  for 
reward  should  be  the  motive  for  all  our  actions.  The 
famous  dictum  of  Antigonos  of  Socho,  "Be  not  like 
servants  that  minister  to  their  master  upon  the  con- 
dition of  receiving  a  reward"  (Abot  1 :3),  expresses 
the  principle  so  often  repeated  in  the  early  and 
later  Jewish  writings.  Disinterested  service,  virtue 
for  its  own  sake,  doing  the  right  because  it  is  right, 
this  is  the  highest  form  of  life  enjoined  in  Judaism. 
The  joy  of  doing  God's  will,  of  approaching  ever 
closer  to  the  ideal  of  holiness,  of  living  a  life  in  ac- 

255 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

cordance  with  the  law  of  God,  was  ever  a  sufficient 
incentive  to  the  pious  Jew.  This  is  what  the  Rabbis 
meant  by  the  term  "Lishmah"  (for  its  own  sake), 
which  occupies  such  an  important  position  in  Rab- 
binic theology.  This  notion  of  performing  a  Miz- 
wah  and  doing  God's  will,  ''Lishmah"  (for  its  own 
sake),  without  any  anticipation  of  reward,  is  made 
by  the  Rabbis  to  serve  as  the  only  incentive  for 
obedience  to  the  law.  The  later  Jewish  teachers  ex- 
press the  same  idea  by  the  term  of  "service  of  love," 
by  which  they  mean  the  service  given  to  God  simply 
out  of  love  for  Him  and  for  His  law,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  service  performed  out  of  fear  of 
punishment  or  expectation  of  reward.  (See  Schech- 
ter,  "Aspects  of  Rabbinic  Theology,"  pp.  159-169.) 

The  Future  Life. — Jewish  belief  and  doctrine 
ofifers  still  another  solution  to  the  eternal  problem, 
"Why  do  the  righteous  suffer  and  the  wicked 
prosper?"  It  says  that  human  actions  receive  their 
due  recompense  in  the  future  world,  in  the  life  after 
death.  The  immortal  soul,  liberated  from  the 
shackles  of  the  material  body  at  death,  enters  its 
natural  state  and  becomes  united  with  the  soul  of 
the  universe.  This  world,  according  to  the  Rabbis, 
is  only  the  vestibule,  the  future  world  is  the  real 
home.  The  soul,  pure  from  sin,  will  be  able  to  enter 
that  blessed  state  at  once  and  rise  to  the  spiritual 
heights  which  that  state  affords.  The  soul  that  has 
not  utilized  the  opportunities  in  this  world  to  the 
best  advantage  but  has  allowed  itself  to  become 
tartiished  by  sordid  sin,  will  have  to  undergo  a  pro- 
cess of  purging  and  cleansing  before  it  can  attain 
to  the  spiritual  heights  reserved  for  it.  There,  in 
the  future  world,  divine  justice  has  prepared  the  rich 
reward  for  the  righteous,  a  reward  measured  out  in 

256 


Rezvard  and  Punishment 


spiritual  delights  which  can  be  enjoyed  only  by 
those  who  kept  themselves  pure  in  this  life  and  did 
not  allow  their  souls  to  become  soiled  by  the  mire  of 
iniquity.  The  soul  of  the  transgressor  will  be  de- 
prived of  these  joys  until  it  becomes  purified  again, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  enter  the  gates  of  heaven. 

The  Rabbis  use  the  following  parable  in  explain- 
ing the  passage,  "Let  thy  garments  always  be  white, 
and  let  thy  head  lack  no  oil"  (Ecclesiastes  9:8).  A 
King  once  invited  many  guests  to  a  feast,  but  did 
not  appoint  a  time  when  the  feast  would  be  held. 
The  order  was  that  all  the  invited  guests  should 
bathe,  put  on  clean  garments  and  be  ready  for  the 
summons.  The  wise  among  them,  knowing  that 
there  is  always  plenty  in  the  king's  palace  for  any 
feast,  immediately  prepared  themselves  in  accord- 
ance with  the  instructions  and  waited  patiently  at 
the  gate  of  the  palace  for  the  call  to  the  feast.  The 
fools,  however,  said  that  they  will  have  enough  time 
to  get  ready  after  they  see  preparations  going  on  in 
the  palace,  and  they  each  went  to  attend  to  his  busi- 
ness. Suddenly  the  summons  came.  The  wise,  who 
were  prepared  for  it,  were  welcomed  by  the  king 
with  pleasure,  while  the  fools,  who  had  to  come  in 
with  their  dirty  clothes  and  unkempt  hair,  met  with 
the  king's  displeasure.  Thus,  the  Rabbis  say,  we 
should  always  be  prepared  for  the  summons  of  God 
to  enter  the  blessed  state  of  the  world  to  come.  We 
should  keep  our  souls  clean,  our  characters  pure,  so 
as  to  be  ready  at  all  times  for  the  call  to  the  great 
feast  prepared  for  us.  ''Repent  one  day  before  thy 
death"  (Abot  2:15).  How  are  we  to  know  when  to 
repent,  since  we  know  not  the  day  of  our  death? 
It  is,  therefore,  well,  the  Rabbis  say,  that  we  repent 
every  day,  since  death  might  overtake  us  at  any 
time.    We  should  always  see  to  it  that  our  garments 

257 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

be  clean,  that  our  deeds  and  thoughts  be  pure,  we 
should  always  stand  prepared  to  enter  the  realms 
of  spiritual  life,  since  we  do  not  know  when  the 
summons  will  come  to  us. 

There  are,  indeed,  many  Rabbis  and  teachers  who 
conceived  of  the  life  after  death  in  a  more  material 
sense  than  here  presented.  The  prevalent  opinion 
in  ancient  Jewry  regarding  this  was  that  the  body, 
in  some  form  or  other,  partakes  of  the  future  life  to- 
gether with  the  soul.  The  existence  of  places  of 
torment,  in  a  material  sense,  is  mentioned  in  Jewish 
literature  and  was  believed  in  by  the  Jewish  people 
at  large.  It  is  true  that  the  belief  in  a  hell  of  ever- 
lasting punishment,  with  the  horrible  details  given 
to  it  in  other  creeds,  finds  but  few  adherents  in 
ancient  Jewry.  Still  many  Jewish  writers  allowed 
their  imagination  full  sway  in  presenting  a  detailed 
account  of  the  sufferings  awaiting  the  sinner  in  the 
next  world,  and  the  terms  used  are  mostly  borrowed 
from  the  material  world.  The  Jewish  philosophers 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  however,  as  well  as  many  of  the 
more  modern  Jewish  thinkers,  believe  that  life  be- 
yond the  grave  can  have  only  a  spiritual  nature,  in 
which  only  the  soul  of  man  can  partake.  The  re- 
ward of  the  righteous  will  be  the  ready  union  of  the 
soul  of  man  with  the  spiritual  element  of  the  uni- 
verse, of  which  it  is  a  part,  while  the  punishrnent  of 
the  wicked  will  consist  in  the  inability  of  his  soul 
to  soar  aloft  to  the  regions  of  eternal  bliss  and  in 
the  bitter  regret  caused  by  this  impotence.  But  even 
the  soul  of  the  sinner  will  not  forever  be  denied  this 
bliss,  for  Judaism  knows  naught  of  the  principle  of 
eternal  damnation.  After  the  soul  shall  have  gone 
through  some  process  of  purification,  of  which  we, 
in  this  life,  can  form  no  conception,  the  soul  of  the 
sinner  will  also  be  received  in  the  state  of  spiritual 

258 


Rczvard  and  Piiuislniicnf 


exaltation,    in    which    it    shall    remain    throughout 
eternity. 

Mode  of  Class  Presentation. — The  speculative 
character  of  this  whole  subject  makes  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  lesson  in  the  classroom  extremely  diffi- 
cult. The  teacher  is  warned  to  be  constantly  on  his 
guard  and  not  to  attempt  to  solve  the  whole  problem 
in  a  definite  manner.  It  may  be  well  to  point  out 
that  no  other  system  of  thought  has  ever  solved 
these  difficulties  to  the  satisfaction  of  all.  ^  The  re- 
ligious man  takes  refuge  in  faith,  and,  admitting  his 
inability  to  demonstrate  these  ideas  logically,  still 
clings  to  them  most  tenaciously,  because  he  feels 
them  to  be  the  truth.  With  sincere  conviction  the 
pious  Jew  repeats  every  morning  the  refrain  of  that 
famous  hymn,  "Adon  Olam":  "Into  His  hand  I 
commend  my  spirit,  when  I  sleep  and  when  I  wake ; 
and  with  my  spirit,  my  body  also ;  the  Lord  is  with 
me  and  I  will  not  fear."  'Tt  is  not  likely  that  we 
shall  ever  succeed  in  making  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  a  matter  of  scientific  demonstration,  for  we 
lack  the  requisite  data.  It  must  ever  remain  an 
afifair  of  religion  rather  than  of  science.  In  other 
words,  it  must  remain  one  of  that  class  of  questions 
upon  which  I  may  not  expect  to  convince  my 
neighbor,  while,  at  the  same  time,  I  may  entertain 
a  reasonable  conviction  of  my  own  upon  the  sub- 
ject." (John  Fiske,  'The  Destiny  of  Man,"  p.  108). 
This  remark  applies  with  equal  force  to  the  whole 
range  of  religious  doctrines,  for  the  establishment 
of  the  existence  of  which  "we  lack  the  requisite 
data."  The  teacher's  task  is  done  when  he  succeeds 
in  presenting  these  subjects  in  their  broad  outlines, 
emphasizing  the  prevailing  Jewish  belief  regarding 
them  and  making  it  serve  as  a  spur  to  proper  re- 

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Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

ligious  conduct.  Without  hiding  the  difficulties  at- 
tending the  elaboration  and  detailed  application  of 
these  beliefs,  they  need  not  receive  undue  emphasis 
in  the  classroom.  The  larger  ideas  of  reward  and 
punishment,  of  virtue  being  its  own  reward,  and  of 
the  future  life,  are  sufficiently  reasonable  and  even 
logical,  as  based  on  the  belief  in  the  justice  and 
goodness  of  God. 

The  student  is  directed  for  a  further  study  of 
this  subject  to  Joseph,  ^'Judaism  as  Creed  and  Life," 
pp.  90-112;  Schechter,  ''Studies  in  Judaism,"  pp. 
212-232. 

RESUME 

God  is  our  Judge.  He  not  only  knows  all  our 
actions  and  all  our  thoughts,  but  He  also  determines 
their  value  in  relation  to  the  final  aim  of  life.  Our 
idea  of  human  responsibility,  based  on  the  belief  in 
human  freedom  of  the  will  to  act,  implies  divine 
justice.  Perfect  justice,  as  divine  justice  must 
needs  be  (cf.  Genesis  18:25),  presupposes  reward 
and  punishment.  Without  a  belief  in  divine  retribu- 
tion, the  idea  of  human  responsibility  would  be 
meaningless.  Rewards  and  punishments  are  admin- 
istered by  God,  not  only  as  a  recompense  for  the 
uses  that  we  are  making  of  the  gift  of  life,  but  also 
as  warnings  and  encouragements  to  future  conduct. 

Retribution  was  ever  regarded  by  Jewish  teach- 
ers as  an  act  of  mercy  rather  than  of  anger  or 
revenge.  It  is  because  God  loves  us,  because  He  is 
interested  in  our  individual  progress  toward  holi- 
ness, that  He  punishes  us  for  our  transgressions. 
This  is  most  obvious  in  the  relation  of  God  to  the  re- 
pentant sinner.  The  idea  of  repentance  and  of  for- 
giveness, the  most  glorious  and  reassuring  thought 
that  religion  offers  to  weak  and  stumbling  humanity, 

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Rezvard  and  Punishment 


illustrates  concretely  the  religious  conception  of 
God's  love  and  compassion. 

We  are  not  always  able  to  understand  God's  ways 
in  meting  out  justice.  We  are  often  puzzled  by  con- 
ditions that  may  appear  to  us  as  unjust  and  inex- 
plicable. This  is  due  to  our  limited  view  and  our 
narrow  conception  of  life  and  its  destiny.  The  good- 
ness and  justice  of  God  are  sufficiently  well-es- 
tablished by  oar  own  experiences  to  make  us  believe 
that  what  appears  to  us  harsh  and  undeserving  is 
due  to  our  inability  to  appreciate  the  ways  of  God 
and  His  standards  of  judgment. 

That  God's  justice  is  operative  in  this  world  is 
seen  in  the  every-day  occurrences  of  life.  Vice 
brings  its  own  punishment  and  wickedness  does  not 
always  escape  its  deserved  retribution.  Virtue  and 
piety  bring  happiness  in  the  consciousness  of  hav- 
ing done  the  right  and,  thereby,  having  received  the 
approval  of  God. 

The  highest  life  is  the  one  in  which  virtue  is 
practised  for  its  own  sake,  without  a  thought  of  the 
recompense  that  it  will  bring.  Doing  the  right 
because  it  is  right,  and  not  out  of  fear  of  punish- 
ment or  out  of  the  expectation  of  reward,  is  regarded 
by  Jewish  teachers  as  the  most  acceptable  kind  of 
service. 

While  reward  and  punishment  are  dispensed  in 
this  world,  the  real  recompense,  according  to  the 
Jewish  belief,  will  be  bestowed  in  the  world  to  come. 
"What  we  call  death  may  be  but  the  dawning  of 
true  knowledge  and  of  true  life."  In  the  life  after 
death  rewards  and  punishments  will  be  rneasured 
out  according  to  spiritual  standards.  This  being 
entirely  out  of  the  ken  of  human  experience,  we 
cannot  expect  to  form  definite  and  exact  ideas  about 
its  detailed  application.    We  are  satisfied  with  the 

261 


Methods  of  Teachmg  the  Jezvish  Religion 

conviction  that  our  immortal  souls,  purified  from 
sin,  will  enjoy  the  bliss  of  being  near  to  God  and 
will  be  allowed  to  continue  a  spiritual  existence 
throughout  all  eternity. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Explain  how  the  feeling  of  human  responsi- 
bility implies  the  belief  in  Reward  and  Punishment. 

2.  Contrast  human  and  divine  justice.  Why  is 
divine  retribution  necessary  in  cases  where  permis- 
sion is  given  to  human  courts  to  exercise  judgment? 

3.  How  do  you  reconcile  divine  justice  and 
divine  mercy?  Illustrate  your  reply  by  the  idea  of 
God's  forgiveness. 

4.  Is  suffering  always  the  result  of  God's  dis- 
pleasure? How  does  the  book  of  Job  answer  the 
problem  of  why  the  wicked  prosper  and  the  right- 
eous suffer? 

5.  "The  seeming  injustice  of  the  world  should 
be  rather  ascribed  to  our  incompetence  to  grasp 
God's  ways."    Explain  this  statement. 

6.  Mention  cases  in  your  own  experience  where 
reward  and  punishment  were  equably  meted  out. 

7.  "Virtue,  for  its  own  sake,  is  the  highest  ideal 
in  Judaism."  Explain  this,  quoting  examples  from 
Jewish  literature. 

8.  Describe  the  Jewish  idea  of  a  future  life.  How 
are  rewards  and  punishments  dispensed  in  that 
lifer? 


262 


XIX.    THE   MESSIANIC    HOPE 

The  Election  of  Israel.— "Thou  hast  chosen  us 
from  all  peoples;  Thou  hast  loved  us  and  favored 
us  and  exalted  us  above  all  tongues;  Thou  hast 
sanctified  us  by  Thy  commandments  and  brought  us 
near  unto  Thy  service,  O  our  King,  and  hast  called 
us  by  Thy  great  and  holy  name."  This  prayer,  re- 
curring in  all  the  festival  prayers  of  the  year,  ex- 
presses a  beHef  firmly  adhered  to  by  Jews  through- 
out their  history.  While  not  given  a  place  among 
the  creeds  of  Judaism,  the  idea  of  Israel's  election 
has  held  a  prominent  position  in  the  development 
of  Jewish  theology  and  exerted  a  potent  influence 
on  the  formation  of  Jewish  character.  "Even  a 
cursory  perusal  of  Bible  and  Talmud  leaves  no 
doubt  that  the  notion  of  the  election  always  main- 
tained in  Jewish  consciousness  the  character  of  at 
least  an  unformulated  dogma"  (Schechter,  "Aspects 
of  Rabbinic  Theology,"  p.  57). 

Although  God's  love  extends  to  all  His  creatures, 
Israel  is  the  object  of  His  especial  care  and  solici- 
tude. All  men  are  made  in  the  image  of  God,  but 
Israel  is  His  child  (cf.  Abot  HIilS),  aye,  His  first- 
born child  (Exodus  4:22).  Israel  is  God's  chosen 
people,  entrusted  by  Him  with  a  great  task,  with  an 
exalted  mission.  Because  of  the  great  love  God 
bore  for  Israel,  He  made  him  the  custodian  of  the 
everlasting  truths  of  religion,  the  guardian  of  the 
purest  religious  doctrines  and  of  the  holiest  disci- 
pline of  life.  Because  of  His  great  love  for  all  the 
children  of  men,  God  has  selected  this  one  people 

263 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

with  whom  these  glorious  truths  should  be  deposited 
and  kept  undefiled  until  all  other  peoples  are  ready- 
to  accept  them  and  make  them  their  own.  Not  for 
power  or  military  prowess,  not  for  political  prestige 
or  economic  superiority,  nor  even  for  the  purpose  of 
spreading  culture  and  enlightenment  was  Israel 
elected  by  God.  It  is  a  spiritual  mission  that  was 
imposed  upon  the  Jew, — a  mission  that  deals  with 
the  highest  concerns  of  life, — with  truth  and  right- 
eousness. Other  nations  may  have  been  appointed 
special  tasks  in  life,  but  Israel  was  given  the  su- 
preme task,  the  task  of  following  and  spreading  the 
belief  in  one  God,  who  desires  righteousness  to  fill 
the  earth.  Other  nations  may  have  contributed 
largely  to  the  world's  wealth  in  art  and  science,  in 
law  and  government,  but  Israel  was  chosen  to  ex- 
emplify the  holiness  of  life,  to  bring  God  near  to 
human  experience  and  thus  sanctify  human  conduct 
and  human  aspirations. 

Twofold  Aim  of  Election. — ^The  idea  of  the  elec- 
tion of  Israel  was  conceived  at  the  very  dawn  of 
Jewish  history  (cf.  Genesis  18:19),  but  it  was  defi- 
nitely formulated  at  the  decisive  moment  of  Israel's 
national  existence,  at  the  time  of  the  Revelation  at 
Sinai.  Then  the  real  purpose  and  object  of  this 
election  were  made  clear.  *'And  ye  shall  be  unto  me 
a  kingdom  of  priests  and  a  holy  nation.*'  (Exodus 
19:6.)  "A  kingdom  of  priests"  implies  a  world  con- 
stituency to  minister  to.  "A  holy  nation"  denotes 
a  nation  that  renounces  worldly  power  and  worldly 
ambitions,  a  nation  that  bases  its  national  life  on  a 
spiritual  foundation  and  insists  upon  the  conformity 
to  this  standard  of  life  by  every  individual  member. 
This  is  the  twofold  purpose  of  Israel's  election.  The 
Jew  was  chosen  by  God  to  live  a  godly  life,  to  make 

264 


The  Messianic  Hope 


the  ideal  of  holiness  a  vitalizing  principle  of  life,  to 
manifest  the  great  truths  of  religion  and  morality  in 
his  everyday  existence.  He  was  entrusted  v^ith 
God's  Torah  and  sanctified  v^ith  His  command- 
ments, and  he  was  thus  brought  closer  to  the  serv- 
ice of  God,  closer  to  the  ideal  of  holiness.  Readily 
assuming  the  responsibilities  that  the  Revelation  at 
Sinai  imposed  upon  him,  the  Jew  thereby  conse- 
crated his  life,  individual  and  national,  to  the  service 
of  God  and  made  the  attainment  of  holiness  his  en- 
tire concern.  But  the  ideals  of  life  that  go  with  the 
idea  of  election  are  not  to  remain  the  exclusive  pos- 
session of  Israel.  They  are  to  become  of  world- 
wide application;  they  are  the  final  aim  and  object 
of  the  life  of  the  human  race.  Through  Israel,  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth  are  to  be  blessed  (cf.  Gene- 
sis 12:3).  Israel  is  to  serve  humanity,  to  enlighten 
the  v/orld  with  the  truths  that  were  entrusted  to 
him,  with  the  standard  of  life  that  leads  to  holiness. 
He  is  to  form  a  kingdom  of  priests,  ministering  to 
the  whole  world  the  blessings  that  true  religion  and 
an  exalted  morality  vouchsafe  to  their  adherents. 
The  m.ission  of  Israel  is  thus  an  important  part  of 
the  doctrine  of  Israel's  election.  Israel  must  be  a 
holy  nation,  a  nation  that  makes  holiness  of  life  its 
highest  aspiration,  and,  being  such,  Israel  will  ac- 
complish its  mission  of  being  the  teacher  of  man- 
kind in  those  matters  over  which  he  was  made  cus- 
todian. 

Aim  Still  Unrealized. — That  the  Jew  has  not  al- 
ways been  faithful  to  his  duties  and  loyal  to  the 
task  imposed  upon  him,  his  own  history,  as  chron- 
icled by  his  own  teachers  and  guides,  bears  suffi- 
cient testimony.  He  was  not  always  able  to  with- 
stand the  temptations  of  worldliness,  and  often  al- 

265 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

lowed  himself  to  be  led  away  from  the  path  laid 
out  for  him  by  God.  He  often  allowed  his  priestly 
rank  to  suffer,  and  instead  of  leading  others  to  the 
service  of  the  true  God  and  to  the  o1)servance  of 
His  law,  he  permitted  himself  to  be  led  by  them  to 
the  worship  of  idolatry  and  to  the  pursuance  of  sin. 
Israel's  backslidings  were  many,  and  in  every  in- 
stance were  met  with  severe  punishment.  Because 
of  his  high  calling  and  exalted  mission,  his  trans- 
gressions were  more  severely  punished,  and  his  sins 
met  with  more  exacting  retribution.  ''You  only  have 
I  known  of  all  the  families  of  the  earth;  therefore 
I  will  visit  upon  you  all  your  iniquities."  (Amos  3 : 
2;  see  Chapter  IV.)  But  in  all  the  trials  and  suffer- 
ings with  which  Israel  was  visited,  in  all  the  ter- 
rible retribution  meted  out  to  him  throughout  the 
ages,  he  has  not  ceased  being  God's  elect.  God's 
love  for  him  has  not  departed  ;  he  still  remains  God's 
chosen  people,  God's  missionary  to  the  world.  "For 
the  mountains  may  depart  and  the  hills  be  removed ; 
but  My  kindness  shall  not  depart  from  thee,  neither 
shall  My  covenant  of  peace  be  removed,  saith  the 
Lord  that  hath  compassion  on  thee"  (Isaiah  54:10). 
And  if  many  of  the  nations  have  gone  astray  and 
become  unfaithful  to  their  ideals  of  life,  there  were 
always  some  who  continued  to  treasure  the  national 
heritage  and  to  preserve  the  national  standards. 
The  "remnant  of  Israel,"  "that  shall  not  do  iniquity 
nor  speak  lies"  (Zephaniah  3:13),  could  be  trusted 
to  maintain  the  national  traditions  and  to  uphold  the 
ideals  of  Judaism.  Israel  suffered  for  his  sins,  and 
his  punishment  was  the  more  severe,  because  more 
was  expected  of  him,  and  because  his  life  was  to 
serve  as  a  model  to  humanity.  But  his  teachings 
have  penetrated  the  hearts  of  mankind  and  have 
taken  root  in  the  strivings  and  the  higher  aspira- 

266 


Tlic  Messianic  Hope 


tions  of  the  race.  If  the  world  has  not  as  yet  en- 
tirely accepted  the  great  truths  of  Judaism,  and  if 
the  world  will  not  yet  hearken  to  the  teachings  of 
the  "remnant  of  Israel,"  and  subscribe  to  their 
ideals  of  life  and  standards  of  belief,  Israel  does  not 
lose  hope  nor  does  he  become  discouraged.  The 
time  will  come — aye,  it  must  come — when  all  men 
will  recognize  the  eternal  truths  of  the  Jewish  re- 
ligion, when  "the  earth  shall  be  full  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  Lord,  as  the  waters  cover  the  sea" 
(Isaiah  11 :9),  when  righteousness  and  peace  will  be 
the  guiding  stars  of  all  men  and  of  all  nations. 

The  Messianic  Hope. — This  is  the  Messianic  hope 
of  the  Jews,  which  the  prophets  predicted  and  to 
which  Israel  has  clung  most  fervently  throughout 
his  existence.  This  is  the  great  future  promised  by 
God  through  His  prophets,  sages  and  seers,  for  the 
speedy  realization  of  which  every  generation  of 
Jews  has  been  praying  and  hoping.  It  finds  expres- 
sion in  every  book  of  the  Bible  and  in  all  subsequent 
Jewish  literature.  It  is  the  dominant  note  of  the 
Jewish  prayer-book  and  has  formed  a  most  attrac- 
tive theme  for  poet  and  artist  of  all  ages.  At  the 
end  of  days,  in  God's  own  time,  all  the  peoples  of 
the  earth  will  come  to  recognize  the  truths  of 
Israel's  teachings  and  the  grandeur  of  his  standard 
of  life.  The  lofty  conceptions  of  a  pure  God,  one 
and  indivisible,  and  of  an  exalted  morality  which 
hallows  life,  will  become  the  property  of  the  whole 
race. 

"We  therefore  hope  in  Thee,  O  Lord  our  King, 
that  we  may  speedily  behold  the  glory  of  Thy  might, 
when  Thou  wilt  remove  the  abominations  from  the 
earth,  and  the  idols  will  be  utterly  cut  oflF,  when  the 
world  will  be  perfected  under  the  kingdom  of  the 

267 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 

Almighty,  and  all  the  children  of  flesh  will  call  upon 
Thy  name,  when  Thou  wilt  turn  unto  Thyself  all 
the  wicked  of  the  earth.  Let  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  world  perceive  and  know  that  unto  Thee  every 
knee  must  bend,  every  tongue  must  swear.  Before 
Thee,  O  Lord,  our  God,  let  them  bow  and  fall ;  and 
unto  Thy  glorious  name  let  them  give  honor;  let 
them  all  accept  the  yoke  of  Thy  kingdom,  and  do 
Thou  reign  over  them  speedily,  and  for  ever  and 
ever.  For  the  kingdom  is  Thine,  and  to  all  eternity 
Thou  wilt  reign  in  glory,  as  it  is  written  in  Thy 
Law,  The  Lord  shall  reign  for  ever  and  ever.  And 
it  is  said.  And  the  Lord  shall  be  King  over  all  the 
earth;  in  that  day  shall  the  Lord  be  One  and  His 
name  One."  (See  ^'Alenu,"  often  called  *The 
Adoration,"  in  the  Jewish  prayer-book.) 

This  beautiful  prayer,  recited  three  times  daily 
by  every  pious  Israelite,  embodies  the  glorious  con- 
ception of  the  Messianic  period,  for  which  every 
Jewish  heart  yearns.  The  picture  of  a  regenerated 
humanity,  of  the  world  won  over  to  the  exalted 
ideals  of  truth  and  righteousness,  which  Jewish 
prophets  untiringly  preached  and  which  Jewish 
sages  ceaselessly  taught,  ever  filled  with  hope  and 
courage  persecuted  and  maltreated  Israel  and  made 
him  forget  his  present  woes  in  the  contemplation  of 
the  great  future  it  depicted  for  humanity.  It  ever 
inspired  him  with  added  enthusiasm  for  his  faith 
and  made  him  forget  the  sufferings  he  had  to  en- 
dure for  its  sake  at  the  hands  of  an  ignorant  and 
prejudiced  world.  At  the  end  of  days,  his  mission 
will  be  accomplished  and  his  task  fulfilled,  by  which 
he  and  the  world  about  him  will  enjoy  the  pure  and 
glorious  happiness  that  results  from  living  the  godly 
life,  the  holy  life. 

268 


The  Messianic  Hope 


Israel  in  Messianic  Age. — Israel,  God's  elect,  the 
teacher  of  mankind,  naturally  occupies  the  central 
position  in  the  prophetic  picture  of  a  regenerated 
world  in  Messianic  times.  Even  before  the  arrival 
of  that  glorious  period,  Israel  will  be  rehabilitated, 
restored  to  his  ancient  inheritance,  whence  the  light 
of  the  universal  religion  will  shine  forth  and  il- 
lumine the  world.  Under  the  guidance  of  a  great 
leader,  appointed  by  God,  a  scion  of  the  house  of 
David,  the  ideal  king  of  the  Jewish  people,  all  Jews 
will  be  gathered  back  to  Palestine  and  there  estab- 
lish a  great  power,  based  on  the  exalted  principles 
of  righteousness  and  peace,  rebuild  the  Temple  and 
reinstitute  the  ancient  Jewish  form  of  worship. 
This  leader,  endowed  with  great  wisdom  and  with 
higher  spiritual  powers,  will  be  the  Messiah  (Heb. 
Mashiah,  literally.  Anointed),  who  will  bring  about 
the  regeneration  of  Israel  upon  his  own  sacred  soil. 
Many  Jewish  writers  have  surrounded  the  person 
of  the  Messiah  and  the  period  of  his  advent  with  a 
number  of  supernatural  qualities  and  events,  mak- 
ing the  approach  of  the  great  *'day  of  the  Lord"  a 
day  of  judgment  for  all  nations,  and  associating 
with  its  arrival  many  miracles  and  wonders.  It  is 
at  that  time  that  the  dead  will  be  resurrected,  all 
past  generations  participating  in  the  supreme  hap- 
piness that  will  come  to  the  human  race  through 
his  advent.  In  the  dark  ages,  when  the  Jew  was 
subjected  to  the  grossest  indignities  and  was  made 
the  target  of  brutal  hate  and  persecution,  when  the 
present  held  out  for  the  Jew  no  comfort,  no  refuge, 
no  hope  for  redress,  the  Jew  loved  to  indulge  in  such 
dreams  of  the  promised  future,  weaving  around  it 
most  fanciful  pictures  which  his  imagination,  let 
loose,  created.  Many  of  these  pictures  of  the  Mes- 
sianic  times   present   great   upheavals,    destructive 

269 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


wars  among  the  nations  and  the  final  discomfiture 
of  those  who  attempted  to  check  the  progress  of  the 
Messiah.  The  materiahstic  element  is  also  present 
in  some  of  these  pictures  of  the  future,  making  the 
righteous  of  all  generations  participate  in  a  gor- 
geous feast  prepared  for  them  from  the  flesh  of  the 
Leviathan  (monster  fish)  and  the  Behemot  (ani- 
mal), and  of  the  wine  kept  for  that  occasion  since 
the  creation  of  the  world.  The  triumphal  march  of 
the  Israelites  to  Jerusalem  led  by  the  Messiah,  also 
became  associated  in  their  fanciful  imagination  with 
many  wonders  and  miracles.  On  these  they  loved 
to  dwell  and  expatiate  in  narrating  them  to  the 
young  children. 

The  more  sober-minded  and  more  rational  Jew- 
ish thinkers  and  writers,  however,  conceived  of  the 
Messiah  as  a  man,  a  descendant  of  the  Davidic 
dynasty,  "divine  only  in  the  greatness  of  his  natural 
gifts,"  who  will  guide  the  destinies  of  a  rejuvenated 
Israel  and  estabhsh  an  ideal  kingdom  in  Palestine, 
which  wall  serve  as  a  model  of  government  to  all 
nations.  The  Messianic  age  will  differ  from  the 
present  age  only  in  this,  that  Israel  will  then  have 
regained  his  sovereignty,  and  that  the  world  will 
have  become  converted  to  the  fundamental  ideals 
of  the  Jewish  religion.  In  almost  all  the  various 
conceptions  of  the  Messiah  and  of  the  Messianic 
period,  found  scattered  in  Jewish  literature  of  all 
ages,  the  restoration  of  Israel  to  Palestine  and  the 
figure  of  the  personal  Messiah  occupy  a  foremost 
position.  Even  that  grand,  universalistic  prophecy, 
quoted  by  both  Isaiah  and  Micah,  makes  Palestine 
the  central  scene  of  the  world's  regeneration  and 
presumes  the  re-establishment  of  Israel's  national 
life.  "And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  the  end  of  days, 
that  the  mountain  of  the  Lord's  house  shall  be  es- 

270 


The  Messianic  Hope 


tablished  as  the  top  of  the  mountains,  and  shall  be 
exalted  above  the  hills ;  and  all  nations  shall  flow 
unto  it.  And  many  people  shall  go  and  say:  Come 
ye,  and  let  us  go  up  to  the  mountain  of  the  Lord, 
to  the  house  of  the  God  of  Jacob ;  and  He  will 
teach  us  of  His  ways  and  we  will  walk  in  His 
paths;  for  out  of  Zion  shall  go  forth  the  law,  and 
the  word  of  the  Lord  from  Jerusalem.  And  He 
shall  judge  between  the  nations,  and  shall  decide 
for  many  peoples ;  and  they  shall  beat  their  swords 
into  plowshares,  and  their  spears  into  pruning- 
hooks ;  nation  shall  not  lift  up  sword  against  nation, 
neither  shall  they  learn  war  any  more.'*  (Isaiah  2: 
2-4;  Micah  4:1-4). 

Modern  Differences  of  View. — The  rational  inter- 
pretation of  the  Messianic  belief,  given  by  some  of 
the  Jewish  philosophers  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was 
still  further  modified  by  many  modern  Jews  who 
wished  to  strip  this  doctrine  of  Judaism  of  all  the 
mystical  elements  associated  with  it.  While  all 
Jews  agree  in  the  belief  of  the  Messianic  era,  with 
its  grand  universalistic  ideals  of  peace,  righteous- 
ness and  the  belief  in  one  God  as  the  principles  of 
the  whole  human  race,  the  agreement  on  the  na- 
tional elements  of  that  hope  and  on  the  figure  of  the 
personal  Messiah  is  not  quite  so  general.  Many 
modern  Jews  entirely  reject  the  national  claims  and 
aspirations  of  the  Jewish  people,  refuse  to  confine 
the  future  of  the  Jewish  people  to  any  particular 
territory,  and  do  not  recognize  the  belief  that  an 
individual  would  become  the  Messiah,  who  would 
bring  about  the  era  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  upon 
earth.  They  say  that  Israel,  "the  servant  of  the 
Lord,"  is  the  Messiah  of  humanity,  and  that  Israel, 
scattered  among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  is  best  able 

271 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

to  make  his  teachings  known  to  the  world  and  thus 
more  readily  fulfill  his  mission.  The  Messianic  era, 
according  to  their  belief,  will  be  the  time  when  all 
peoples  will  accept  the  fundamental  teachings  of 
Judaism,  when  the  ideals  of  the  Jewish  religion  will 
pervade  all  men,  when  the  human  race  will  live  in 
perfect  peace  and  concord,  all  men  brothers  and 
God  the  Father  of  them  all.  The  expulsion  of 
Israel  from  his  land  and  his  wanderings  over  the 
globe  was  not  a  punishment  for  his  sins,  but  a  part 
of  God's  plans  for  the  progress  of  the  human  race. 
The  return  of  Israel  to  Palestine  and  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  the  Jewish  nation  as  a  body  politic, 
would  be  a  misfortune,  since  this  might  greatly 
hinder  the  speedy  realization  of  our  hopes  for  a 
great  era  of  universal  peace  and  happiness. 

Over  against  this  theory  is  the  belief  of  the  great 
bulk  of  the  Jewish  people  who  still  cling  most  tena- 
ciously to  the  hope  of  a  national  resurrection  of 
Israel  in  Palestine,  under  the  guidance  of  a  personal 
Messiah.  They  also  believe  in  the  mission  of  Israel, 
but  they  say  that  this  mission  can  be  best  carried 
out  through  the  force  of  example,  and  Israel  can 
offer  the  example  of  a  pure,  noble  and  exalted  na- 
tional and  individual  life  only  when  he  is  permitted 
to  live  his  own  normal,  natural  life  in  the  place  of 
his  nativity  and  of  his  early  history,  without  the  in- 
terference of  outside  influences.  Israel  in  exile  is 
unable  to  manifest  in  his  life  the  ideals  of  his  re- 
ligion, because  of  the  many  disturbing  factors  that 
surround  him.  He  cannot  realize  the  best  that  is 
within  him  when  he  has  to  live  in  un-Jewish  sur- 
roundings and  partake  of  an  un-Jewish  civilization. 
Israel  in  Palestine,  in  the  land  of  his  ancestors, 
every  speck  of  dust  of  which  brings  up  to  him  asso- 
ciations of  his  past  glory  and  of  his  past  history, 

272 


The  Messianic  Hope 


every  stone  of  which  reminds  him  of  the  great 
achievements  of  his  people,  where  he  can  live  his 
own  life  undisturbed,  will  be  able  to  present  to  the 
world  an  example  of  true  Jewish  ideals,  unadulter- 
ated by  foreign  influences,  an  example  of  the  life 
that  God  intended  him  to  live,  and  thus  become  the 
real  missionary  of  the  world.  They  point  to  the 
numerous  prophecies  which  predict  a  glorious  fu- 
ture for  the  nation  of  Israel  on  its  own  soil.  They 
point  to  the  millions  of  Jews,  who  are  even  today 
persecuted  and  abused  by  a  cruel  world,  and  whose 
only  hope  and  consolation  is  this  glorious  belief. 
Jewish  nationality,  they  claim,  is  a  reality  as  long 
as  the  majority  of  the  Jews  cling  to  it,  and  therefore 
has  a  right  to  a  separate  existence  wherein  it  might 
work  out  its  destiny  in  accordance  with  its  own 
genius  and  its  own  instincts.  Some  of  these  na- 
tional Jews,  indeed,  together  with  their  brethren, 
the  denationalized  Jews,  also  exclude  the  miraculous 
element  of  the  Messianic  period,  in  which  most  Jews 
have  always  believed.  Others  even  exclude  the 
figure  of  the  personal  Messiah  from  their  picture 
of  the  future  of  Israel.  But  most  of  them  agree  that 
that  future  will  be  enacted  in  Palestine,  on  Jewish 
soil. 

These  differences  of  opinion  regarding  the  Mes- 
sianic hope  have  found  expression  in  various  move- 
ments in  modern  Jewry.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  Jewish  children  be  made 
acquainted  with  the  underlying  principles  of  these 
differences.  While  the  teacher's  own  point  of  view 
will  probably  and  justly  receive  stronger  emphasis 
and  more  convincing  interpretation,  the  other  di- 
vergent views  should  be  presented  in  a  sympathetic 
and  tolerant  manner.  The  issues  involved  in  these 
divergent  views  are  of  vital,  present-day  interest, 

272, 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jczvish  Religion 

affecting  the  development  of  the  various  sections  of 
the  communities  in  which  we  live,  and  it  is  there- 
fore essential  that  the  rising  generation  should  have 
an  intelligent,  sympathetic  view  of  the  fundamental 
ideas  underlying  them. 

False  Messiahs. — ^Jewish  history  records  the  ap- 
pearance at  various  times  of  certain  individuals  who 
declared  themselves  as  Messiahs,  appointed  by  God 
to  liberate  His  people  from  bondage  and  restore 
them  to  their  own  land.  Some  of  these  were  de- 
luded dreamers,  whose  souls  were  inflamed  by  the 
glowing  pictures  of  the  Messiah  painted  by  the 
medieval  mystics,  while  others  were  probably  un- 
scrupulous impostors,  who  preyed  upon  the  credu- 
lity of  the  masses,  who  were  always  praying  and 
waiting  for  the  miraculous  appearance  of  God's 
anointed.  Some  of  these  false  Messiahs  had  politi- 
cal ambitions,  endeavoring  to  wrest  Palestine  from 
the  hands  of  its  possessors  by  force  of  arms,  others 
preferred  to  wait  for  a  miraculous  intervention,  in- 
dulging in  fasting  and  praying  and  other  pious 
practices  by  which  they  misled  the  people  into  the 
belief  that  they  were  the  persons  selected  by  God 
to  effect  Israel's  deliverance.  The  mystical  ele- 
ments of  the  Messianic  belief,  which  became  intensi- 
fied and  elaborated  with  the  increase  of  Israel's 
suffering  in  exile,  beclouded  the  minds  of  the  people 
and  dulled  their  intelligence,  so  that  they  became 
a  ready  prey  to  the  machinations  of  any  dreamer  or 
impostor  who  appealed  to  their  fancies.  These  false 
Messiahs  usually  appeared  at  times  of  great  distress, 
when  all  hope  for  natural  relief  and  deliverance  was 
crushed,  and  the  poor,  hunted  Jews  could  find  com- 
fort only  in  the  fanciful  picture  of  a  miraculous  in- 
tervention in  their  behalf.     It  was  then  that  these 

274 


The  Messianic  Hope 


men  arose,  who  proclaimed  themselves  messengers 
of  God,  and  found  a  welcome  reception  at  the  hands 
of  the  despairing  Jews.  The  most  noted  of  these 
were  Bar  Kochba,  in  the  second  century,  who  at- 
tempted, by  means  of  arms,  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of 
the  Romans,  and  Sabbetai  Zebi,  who,  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  succeeded  in  attracting  a  large  num- 
ber of  followers  by  his  ascetic  life  and  the  many 
miracles  which  he  is  alleged  to  have  performed. 
The  appearance  of  these  Messiahs  was  usually  fol- 
lowed by  added  persecution  on  the  part  of  the  gov- 
ernments under  which  the  Jews  lived,  and  by  many 
conversions  to  the  dominant  faiths. 

Relation  to  Christianity. — Christianity  accepts 
the  Jewish  Bible,  recognizing  it  as  the  word  of  God, 
but  it  says  that  the  New  Testament  superseded  the 
teachings  of  what  they  call  the  Old  Testament.  To- 
gether with  the  Jewish  Bible,  Christianity  also 
accepts  the  Jewish  belief  in  a  Messiah  and  a  Mes- 
sianic period,  but  it  says  that  all  the  prophecies  re- 
garding a  Messiah  were  fulfilled  in  Jesus,  the  Christ 
or  Messiah,  w^hom  God  sent  to  redeem  the  world. 
While  Jesus  himself  did  not  claim  the  title  of  Mes- 
siah, the  development  of  Christianity  as  a  religion 
later  revolved  mainly  around  the  idea  of  the  Mes- 
siahship  of  Jesus,  bringing  about  even  the  paradox 
of  making  him  a  descendant  of  the  Davidic  family 
on  his  father's  side.  In  their  attempt  to  establish 
the  claim  of  Jesus  to  the  Messiahship,  the  early 
Christian  Fathers  did  not  hesitate  to  do  violence  to 
some  Biblical  prophecies  in  order  to  make  them  fit 
the  appearance  of  Jesus  and  his  short  career  on 
earth.  In  its  contact  with  other  systems  of  belief 
and  philosophy,  Christianity  surrounded  the  figure 
of  Tesus  with  many  other  attributes,  most  of  them 

275 


Methods  of  Teaching   the  Jezvish  Religion 

foreign  and  antagonistic  to  the  pure  belief  of  its 
mother-faith,  but  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus  was  al- 
ways held  as  an  essential  element  in  the  Christian 
belief  and  dogma,  and  its  relation  to  the  Messianic 
prophecies  of  the  Jewish  Bible  as  firmly  established. 

The  Jews  refuse  to  recognize  Jesus  as  the  Mes- 
siah, because,  according  to  their  belief,  he  lacked 
the  characteristics  of  the  Messiah,  as  presented  by 
their  prophets.  The  era  of  universal  peace  and  uni- 
versal knowledge,  of  righteousness  and  justice  to 
all,  which  forms  an  essential  element  in  the  Jewish 
conception  of  the  Messianic  hope,  has  not  come  with 
the  advent  of  Jesus  and  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity. The  attitude  of  the  Church  to  the  Jews 
throughout  all  these  centuries  only  helped  to  in- 
tensify Jewish  conviction  that  the  Messiah  is  yet 
to  come,  and  that  the  human  race  is  as  far  removed 
from  the  Messianic  epoch  as  it  ever  was.  Chris- 
tianity, not  only  as  the  Christians  practised  it 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  but  even  as  its  teach- 
ers taught  it  since  its  formation  in  the  times  of 
Paul,  presented  to  Judaism  no  high  ideals  which 
they  did  not  already  possess,  while  the  dogmas  and 
doctrines  of  the  Christian  theology  as  developed  by 
the  Church  Fathers  were  even  repulsive  to  the 
Jewish  mind,  fed  on  the  exalted  notions  of  a  pure 
monotheism  and  of  a  spiritual  morality. 

Jewish  thinkers  and  philosophers  look  upon  the 
rise  of  Christianity  and  of  Mohammedanism  as  pre- 
liminary stages  in  the  progress  of  the  world  toward 
the  acceptance  of  the  pure  truths  of  Judaism.  Chris- 
tianity, as  well  as  the  religion  of  Islam,  planted  on 
Jewish  soil,  helped  to  clarify  the  atmosphere  and 
to  remove  the  gross  superstitions  and  the  distorted 
views  of  life  presented  by  paganism.  They  were  not 
indeed  able  to  escape  pagan  influence,  and  in  their 

276 


The  Messianic  Hope 


march  of  conquest  they  too  were  often  conquered. 
Many  of  the  important  dogmas  and  practices  of 
both  these  reHgions  were  originally  concessions  to 
heathen  customs  and  modes  of  belief.  In  their  zeal 
to  gain  many  adherents,  the  early  Christians  allowed 
these  foreign  notions,  foreign  to  the  original  ideals 
of  Judaism,  to  gain  a  permanent  place  in  Christian 
doctrine.  But,  in  spite  of  this,  the  central  ideas  of 
these  religions  and  their  moral  teachings,  derived 
from  the  Jewish  Bible  and  from  Jewish  life,  perme- 
ated the  world  and  prepared  mankind  for  the  more 
glorious  future  promised  to  them  when  all  men  will 
recognize  Jewish  truths  in  their  entirety  and  adopt 
Jewish  ideals  of  God  and  of  holiness,  of  human  con- 
duct and  the  relationship  to  God,  as  completely  and 
as  purely  as  they  are  taught  in  the  Jewish  Bible 
and  interpreted  by  Jewish  Rabbis  and  sages  of  all 
generations.  The  great  Jewish  philosopher,  Mai- 
monides,  says  regarding  the  attitude  of  Judaism 
toward  its  daughter  religions:  ''AH  events  con- 
nected with  Jesus  and  with  Mohammed,  that  rose 
after  him,  served  only  to  pave  the  way  for  the  King 
Messiah,  who  will  reform  all  mankind  and  lead 
them  to  the  unanimous  service  of  God,  as  it  is  said, 
'For  then  will  I  turn  to  the  peoples  a  pure  lan- 
guage, that  they  may  all  call  upon  the  name  of  the 
Lord  to  serve  Him  with  one  consent'  (Zephaniah 
3:9).  How  can  this  be  don  3?  Almost  all  people 
have  through  them — Jesus  and  Mohammed — be- 
come acquainted  with  the  idea  of  Messiah,  with  the 
words  of  the  Torah  and  the  divine  precepts. 
Through  them  the  knowledge  of  the  Bible  spread 
even  unto  the  remotest  islands  and  unto  many  na- 
tions 'uncircumcised'  in  heart  and  uncircumcised  in 
flesh"  (quoted  in  Friedlander's  "J^^^'i^h  Religion," 
p.  228).     The  same  idea  is  also  expressed  by  an 

277 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jezvish  Religion 

earlier  Jewish  philosopher,  R.  Judah  Halevi.  He 
also  regards  Christianity  and  Islam  as  preparing  the 
way  for  a  better  recognition  of  the  ideals  of  Juda- 
ism. "When  all  mankind  shall  learn  to  appreciate 
the  true  value  of  the  stem,  the  fruit  of  which  they 
have  so  long  enjoyed,  they  will  give  honor  to  Israel, 
and,  with  the  chosen  people,  will  enter  the  Messianic 
kingdom." 

For  further  study  of  the  subject  of  this  lesson, 
the  student  is  referred  to  the  following  works: 
Schechter,  "Aspects  of  Rabbinic  Theology,"  Chaps. 
IV,  V,  VI,  VII;  Joseph,  "Judaism  as  Creed  and 
Life,"  pp.  113-129;  Greenstone,  "Messiah  Idea  in 
Jewish  History" ;  Abrahams,  "Judaism,"  Chaps  VII, 
VIII ;  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  articles,  "Christianity," 
"Jesus,"  "Messiah,"  "Pseudo  Messiahs";  Mendes, 
"The  Jewish  Religion,"  pp.  161-171 ;  Friedlander, 
"The  Jewish  Religion,"  pp.  155-167,  225-232 ;  Kohler, 
"Guide  for  Instruction  in  Judaism,"  pp.  38-45. 

RESUME 

The  doctrine  of  the  election  of  Israel,  instead  of 
making  us  arrogant,  is  to  fill  us  with  the  conscious- 
ness of  deepest  obligation.  The  election  impHes 
added  duties  and  responsibilities.  We  are  made 
thereby  the  custodians  of  the  greatest  truths  of  re- 
ligion and  morality,  which,  as  we  believe,  God  pro- 
poses shall  eventually  become  the  possession  of  the 
whole  human  race.  It  is  because  of  His  great  love 
for  all  men  that  God  designated  Israel  as  the  guard- 
ian of  the  exalted  principles  of  life  for  them. 

The  mission  of  Israel  is  an  important  element  in 
the  idea  of  Israel's  election.  Israel  should  be  a  holy 
nation,  a  nation  wedded  to  the  ideal  of  a  high  spirit- 
ual life,  and  being  such,  it  is  to  be  the  kingdom  of 

278 


The  Messianic  Hope 


priests,  ministering  to  the  world,  teaching  humanity 
the  beauty  of  hoHness,  the  grandeur  of  this  exalted 
life. 

This  twofold  aim  of  the  election  idea  has  not  yet 
been  realized.  Neither  has  Israel  always  been  faith- 
ful to  his  trust,  nor  has  the  world  as  yet  learned  all 
the  truths  that  Israel  has  in  store  for  it.  Slow  is 
the  world's  progress  toward  truth  and  righteous- 
ness. Uncertain  and  painful  has  been  Israel's  march 
on  the  path  of  holiness.  Israel  sinned  and  his  sins 
have  met  with  severe  retribution.  But  even  in  the 
time  of  the  most  rebellious  backslidings  of  the  Jew- 
ish people,  there  were  always  some  who  maintained 
the  ideals  of  Judaism  and  kept  them  undefiled.  ''The 
remnant  of  Israel"  then  became  the  hope  of  the 
prophets  and  teachers  of  Israel.  They  will  guard 
Israel's  treasures  for  Israel  and  for  the  world,  until 
these  shall  have  learned  to  appreciate  their  value 
and  adopt  them  in  their  lives.  That  time  may  be 
far  removed,  but  it  is  sure  to  come,  and  all  human 
ambition  should  be  directed  toward  the  speedy  reali- 
zation of  that  glorious  period. 

This  is  the  Messianic  hope  of  the  Jewish  people. 
In  the  future,  in  God's  own  time,  the  prophetic 
ideals  of  universal  knowledge  and  universal  right- 
eousness will  become  realized.  The  whole  Avorld 
will  then  accept  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  which  lead  to  holiness  and  happi- 
ness. Israel  will  then  be  restored  to  his  national  in- 
heritance, establish  a  government,  under  the  guid- 
ance of  the  Messiah,  a  scion  of  the  family  of  David, 
who  will  rule  Israel  with  justice,  and  in  whom  will 
be  realized  the  grand  ideals  of  the  prophets. 

In  the  course  of  Jewish  history,  this  ideal  of  the 
future  of  Israel  in  the  regeneration  of  the  world  in 
Messianic  times  has  been  surrounded  with  a  number 

279 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jeivish  Religion 

of  beliefs,  some  of  which  gained  general  acceptance 
and  became  part  of  the  Jewish  picture  of  the  Mes- 
sianic age.  One  of  these  beliefs  is  the  hope  for  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead  of  all  generations  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  joys  of  the  Messianic  era.  While  the 
exact  limitations  of  this  belief  have  never  been 
definitely  established,  it  was  included  in  the  thirteen 
articles  of  faith,  compiled  by  Maimonides,  and  in- 
corporated, in  various  forms,  in  the  Prayer  Book. 
Other  notions  introduced  into  the  picture  of  the 
future  of  Israel  are  of  a  more  material  nature  and 
have  been  created  in  the  popular  imagination  that 
loved  to  dwell  on  the  grand  dream  of  the  great 
future,  especially  at  the  time  when  the  present  was 
dark  and  gloomy. 

Jewish  thinkers  and  philosophers  speak  of  the 
Messianic  era  only  as  the  era  of  universal  peace  and 
universal  happiness,  when  Jewish  doctrines  of  be- 
lief and  standards  of  life  will  become  the  guides  of 
all  humankind.  They  believe  also  that  Israel's  res- 
toration to  his  own  land  under  the  guidance^  of  a 
man,  a  descendant  of  the  house  of  David,  will  be 
effected  at  that  time. 

In  modern  times,  there  are  many  divergent  views 
regarding  the  Messianic  belief.  Some  make  it  en- 
tirely universal,  rejecting  the  hope  of  Israel's  na- 
tional revival  in  Palestine  and  the  belief  in  the  per- 
sonal Messiah.  Others  still  adhere  to  the  idea  of 
Israel's  revival  as  an  essential  element  of  the  Mes- 
sianic idea.  Others  again,  rejecting  the  belief  in  the 
appearance  of  a  Messiah,  claim  the  right  of  Israel's 
national  existence.  The  great  masses  still  believe  in 
the  many  mystical  notions  connected  with  the  Mes- 
sianic hope,  and  expect  many  miracles  and  wonders 
to  occur  at  the  time  of  the  Messiah's  appearance. 
Whatever  the  teacher's  own  view  may  be,  all  these 

280 


The  Alcssianic  Hope 


opinions  should  be  presented  to  the  pupils  with 
sympathy  and  respect.  Thanks  to  the  pliability  of 
Jewish  doctrine,  all  these  divergent  views  are  still 
regarded  to  be  within  the  fold  of  Jewish  behef  and 
their  manifestations  in  concrete  movements  and 
tendencies  operate  in  our  midst. 

There  were  many  persons  who  at  one  time  or 
another  presented  themselves  to  the  people  as  Me^> 
siahs  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  adherents  and  fol- 
lowers. The  result  of  these  phenomena  in  Jewish 
history  has  always  been  disastrous. 

The  claim  of  Christianity  that  all  Messianic  proph- 
ecies were  fulfilled  in  the  advent  of  Jesus,  is  re- 
jected by  the  Jews,  because  neither  did  the  person  of 
Jesus  come  up  to  the  ideal  of  the  Messiah,  as  con- 
ceived by  the  Jewish  people,  nor  did  he  succeed  in 
bringing  about  the  great  era  of  universal  religion 
and  universal  peace,  which  was  always  an  essential 
feature  of  the  Messianic  hope.  Christianity  and 
Mohammedanism,  based  as  they  are  on  Judaism, 
have  helped  in  preparing  the  world  for  the  accept- 
ance of  the  pure  monotheism  and  of  an  exalted 
standard  of  morality  which  Judaism  teaches.  They 
are  stages  in  the  development  of  the  race  toward  the 
high  ideals  of  the  Messianic  period  when  '*the  Lord 
shall  be  one  and  His  name  one." 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Explain  the  doctrine  of  the  election  of  Israel. 
How  does  this  idea  harmonize  with  the  idea  of  God's 
love  for  all  men? 

2.  What  is  the  twofold  aim  of  the  election? 
Illustrate  by  the  passage  from  Exodus. 

281 


Methods  of  Teaching  the  Jewish  Religion 


3.  What  is  meant  by  the  idea  of  the  ''remnant," 
of  which  the  prophets  often  speak?  Has  Israel  al- 
ways been  loyal  to  his  mission?  How  was  his  dis- 
loyalty punished,  and  why? 

4.  What  is  the  Jewish  Messianic  hope?  What 
position  does  Israel  occupy  in  the  picture  of  the 
future  of  the  race? 

5.  Mention  some  of  the  beliefs  that  have  become 
parts  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Messiah.  Have  they  all 
enjoyed  general  acceptance? 

6.  Describe  the  different  notions  of  the  Mes- 
sianic hope  now  prevalent  among  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple.    State  your  own  opinion  and  justify  it. 

7.  What  was  the  chief  reason  for  the  temporary 
success  of  some  of  the  false  Messiahs?  Mention 
two  examples. 

8.  What  is  the  attitude  of  Judaism  to  the  Chris- 
tian belief  in  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus? 


282 


APPENDIX 
RELIGIOUS  LIFE  IN  THE  HOME 

In  Judaism,  religion  has  been  made  coextensive  with 
life.  Every  detail  of  the  daily  routine  of  life  has  be- 
come associated  in  the  Jewish  mind  with  some  re- 
ligious act  or  thought.  The  ideal  of  holiness  and  all 
that  it  implies  (see  p.  264)  is  brought  near  to  the 
Jew  every  moment  of  his  life.  We  pronounce  bless- 
ings on  rising  in  the  morning  and  on  going  to  sleep 
in  the  evening ;  on  washing  our  hands  ;  when  partaking 
of  the  daily  round  of  meals;  when  enjoying  a  sensa- 
tion of  taste  or  smell ;  even  when  indulging  in  spiritual 
or  intellectual  delights  (see  p.  163).  We  are  reminded 
of  certain  religious  injunctions  on  putting  on  our 
garments ;  on  entering  upon  our  daily  occupations ;  in 
our  dealings  with  relatives  or  with  business  associates. 
The  most  ordinary  occupations  of  life  have  become 
connected  with  some  religious  custom  and  hallowed 
by  some  religious  act.  The  Jew  has  thus  always  been 
conscious  of  the  nearness  of  God  and  of  His  rule  over 
all  his  actions,  thoughts  and  feelings.  Thus,  a  Jew 
would  not  express  a  wish  or  a  hope  without  accom- 
panying such  an  expression  with  the  words  "if  God 
so  wills  it"  (im  yirzeh  ha-Shem)  or  "with  the  help 
of  God"  (b'ezrat  ha-Shem),  words  which  have  be- 
come, with  some  variations,  an  integral  part  of  every 
dialect  spoken  by  the  Jews  in  the  diaspora. 

There  are,  however,  certain  periods  in  life  which 
have  become  much  more  closely  associated  with  re- 
ligion than  others.  The  incidents  marking  distinct 
epochs  in  the  life  of  the  individual,  as  birth,  marriage 
and  death,  have  gathered  around  them  a  whole  series 
of  religious  observances  and  practices  which  have  per- 

283 


Appendix 


sisted  throughout  the  ages,  in  spite  of  the  many  changes 
that  Jewish  Hfe  has  undergone.  Some  of  these  cere- 
monies have  a  mystical  origin,  others  may  even  be 
traced  directly  to  the  superstitions  that  have  flourished 
at  a  certain  era,  but  most  of  them  serve  to  invest  the 
events  with  deep  solemnity  and  beauty.  They  empha- 
size the  great  principle  of  the  Jewish  religion,  that 
life  is  holy  and  that  God  is  close  to  all  human  affairs. 
We  shall  therefore  consider  briefly  in  the  following 
pages  the  religious  ceremonies  connected  with  these 
three  important  occasions  in  life. 

BIRTH 

The  desire  for  children  was  always  very  strong 
among  Jews.  Beginning  with  the  period  of  the  pa- 
triarchs and  continuing  throughout  Jewish  history, 
even  down  to  our  own  times,  this  desire  appears  to 
have  filled  the  hearts  of  Jewish  men  and  women.  The 
birth  of  a  child  was  therefore  greeted  with  much  re- 
joicing on  the  part  of  parents  and  relatives.  In  this 
rejoicing  the  community  was  often  invited  to  join. 
In  the  case  of  the  birth  of  a  male  child,  the  happiness 
of  the  parents  manifested  itself  in  many  ways.  A  feast 
(Shalom  Zachar — "Peace!  a  male!")  is  prepared  for 
relatives  and  friends  on  the  Friday  night  following  the 
birth,  and  also  on  Saturday  morning.  In  some  house- 
holds, both  in  the  case  of  a  male  and  a  female  child, 
copies  of  Psalm  20  are  hung  about  the  room  occupied 
by  mother  and  child,  probably  to  stimulate  visitors  to 
offer  a  prayer  for  the  protection  and  welfare  of  the 
mother  and  the  newly-born  infant.  This  Psalm  was 
sometimes  accompanied  by  a  number  of  kabbalistic 
prayers  and  incantations,  of  a  superstitious  origin, 
which  no  longer  have  any  meaning. 

On  the  eighth  day  following  the  birth  of  a  male 
284 


Religious  Life  in  the  Horne 


child,  the  rite  of  circumcision  is  performed  (see  p. 
178).  This  also  is  made  an  occasion  of  festivity  and 
rejoicing.  Care  is  taken  that  at  least  ten  adult  males 
(Minyan)  should  be  present  at  the  ceremony,  and  the 
various  honors  in  the  services  connected  with  the  per- 
formance of  the  rite  are  distributed  among  the  dif- 
ferent members  of  the  family  or  assigned  to  distin- 
guished guests.  The  most  coveted  honor  (Mizwah) 
is  that  of  holding  the  child  while  the  operation  is 
being  performed.  The  one  thus  honored  is  called 
Sandek  (godfather).  Next  to  the  chair  upon  which  he 
is  seated,  another  chair  is  placed,  known  as  the  "Chair 
of  Elijah."  Elijah,  the  favorite  hero  of  Jewish  legend 
(comp.  I  Kings  19:10),  is  presumed  to  be  present  on 
such  an  occasion  and  to  lend  his  religious  enthusi- 
asm to  the  sacredness  of  the  ceremony,  as  well  as  to 
afford  protection  to  the  child.  The  person  honored 
to  bring  the  child  into  the  room  and  hand  it  to  the 
Sandek  is  known  by  the  German  term  Gevatter  or 
Gevatterin  (corrupted  in  Yiddish  into  Kwatter). 

After  the  child  is  brought  into  the  room  on  a  cushion 
and  placed  upon  "the  chair  of  Elijah,"  the  assembled 
guests  exclaim,  "Blessed  be  he  who  comes  in  the  name 
of  the  Lord !"  The  father  of  the  child  and  the  Mohel 
(who  performs  the  operation)  each  pronounce  an  in- 
troductory prayer  and  the  child  is  then  placed  in  the 
lap  of  the  Sandek.  Both  the  father  of  the  child  and 
the  Mohel  then  pronounce  the  appropriate  blessing 
and  the  operation  is  performed.  The  Mohel  then  takes 
up  a  cup  of  wine  and  chants  a  prayer  over  it,  in  the 
course  of  which  the  child  is  named  and  the  hope  is 
expressed  that  the  parents  may  derive  much  joy 
through  him,  and  that  he  may  grow  up  to  be  a  loyal 
member  of  the  Jewish  community  and  faithful  to  the 
religion  of  Israel.  "Even  as  he  has  entered  into  the 
covenant,  so  may  he  enter  into  the  Law,  the  nuptial 

285 


Appendix 


canopy,  and  into  good  deeds."  The  Sandek  drinks  of 
the  wme  and  a  few  drops  are  also  put  into  the  mouth 
ot  the  infant.  The  cup  with  the  remaining  wine  is 
sent  in  to  the  mother,  who  also  partakes  of  it  (see 
bmger,  Authorized  Prayer  Book,  pp.  304-307) 

The  ceremony  is  usually  followed  by  a  banquet  and 
It  IS  regarded  highly  meritorious  to  partake  of  such  a 
feast  (Seudat  Mizwah).    In  the  grace  after  this  meal 
a  series  of  special  prayers  are  added  for  the  safety 
and  happiness  of  the  new-born  child. 

If  the  child  is  not  in  good  health,  the  rite  of  cir- 
cumcision is  postponed  until  he  is  declared  to  be  well 
by  a  physician  Every  precaution  must  be  taken  to 
safeguard  the  health  of  the  child.  The  Mohel  should 
be  one  who  is  skilled  in  his  work,  acquainted  with  the 
laws,  and  strictly  religious  in  his  life.  The  operation 
is  performed  also  on  Sabbaths  and  holidays,  when  the 
eighth  day  coincides  with  a  Sabbath  or  a  holiday  A 
postponed  operation,  however,  is  performed  only  on 
a  weekday.  In  earlier  times,  it  was  usual  to  perform 
the  rite  of  circumcision  in  the  synagogue,  in  the  ores- 
ence  of  the  congregation.  ^ 

h^W^  (vIa'^^'^'I  ^i  ''^^'  redemption  of  the  first- 
n?pH  hJ.  f  ^T  ^u'^tf"^  '"^  P-  ^^^)  ^^  ^^so  accompa- 
nied  by  a  feast,  which  partakes  of  a  religious  character 

r.r.Z  ^^^^'""'^'^f  were  observed  in  Jewish  homes 
on  the  occasion  o  the  weaning  of  a  child  (comp.  Gene! 
sis  21 .8)  •  when  the  child  began  the  study  of  the  He- 
brew  alphabet,  and  when  he  began  the  study  of  the 
Torah,  Mishnah  or  Talmud.  The  training"^  of  he 
child  in  a  knowledge  of  the  Torah  and  in  the%vorship 
of  God  was  regarded  not  only  as  the  most  sacred  duty 
of  he  parents,  but  also  as  their  greatest  delight  From 
bLisin  J'  'T^'  ''^  '''''^  ''''  ^^"--ht  to  repfat  certai^ 

the  aTnf  cf  ^"^^^''  {''^  P-  ^6^)  '-^"d  «"  reaching 
the  age  of  six  or  seven  he  was  taken  to  school,  wherl 

2B6 


Religious  Life  in  the  Home 


he  was  initiated  into  the  study  of  Hebrew  and  the 
Bible.  This  initiation  was,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  ac- 
companied by  a  series  of  elaborate  festivities  and  cere- 
monies (see  Ginzberg,  The  Jemish  Primary  School). 
Many  of  these  ceremonies  have  survived  to  the  pres- 
ent day,  differing  in  their  details  in  various  lands,  but 
all  having  the  same  aim,  to  make  the  child  realize  the 
importance  of  the  new  step  in  his  life  and  to  arouse 
in  him  love  and  reverence  for  study  and  knowledge. 

While  the  celebration  of  birthday  anniversaries  is 
not  distinctly  Jewish  in  its  origin  (see  Jewish  Ency- 
clopedia, under  "Birthday"),  the  thirteenth  birthday 
anniversary  of  the  boy  (Bar  Mizwah)  is  marked  by 
special  ceremonies  and  festivities   (see  p.  176). 

Less  importance  was,  in  former  times,  attached  to 
the  Hebrew  education  of  girls.  While  the  girls  were 
trained  in  the  practical  duties  of  religion  in  the  home, 
it  was  not  considered  necessary  to  give  them  as  com- 
plete a  course  in  the  study  of  the  Hebrew  language 
and  of  the  Bible  and  Talmud  as  that  provided  for 
boys.  In  more  recent  times,  girls  are  frequently  given 
a  thorough  Hebrew  education  and  they  are  sent  to 
the  Hebrew  schools  together  with  the  boys.  With 
the  progress  of  the  position  of  woman  in  all  walks 
of  life,  it  is  recognized  that  the  Jewish  girl  should 
become  more  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  religious 
teachings  and  practices  of  her  people,  so  that  she  may 
be  able  to  exercise  her  added  duties  and  responsibili- 
ties to  the  Jewish  community  in  a  more  intelligent 
manner. 

MARRIAGE 

Although  in  Jewish  Law  marriage  is  primarily  re- 
garded as  a  civil  agreement,  many  religious  customs 
and  observances,  in  the  course  of  time,  clustered  about 
the  ceremony  and  made  it  a  distinctly  religious  act. 

287 


Appendix 


The  later  Hebrew  term  for  the  nuptial  ceremony, 
Kiddushin  (consecration),  indicates  the  religious  sig- 
nificance which  it  assumed  in  the  Jewish  mind.  It 
has  come  to  be  considered  as  a  covenant,  a  holy  bond 
(Proverbs  2:17,  comp.  Malachi  2:14),  consecrated  by 
God's  presence.  The  ceremony  is  usually  performed 
by  a  Rabbi  or  minister  of  religion,  and  is  often  con- 
ducted in  the  synagogue  or  in  the  synagogue  court- 
yard. While  the  religious  exercises  connected  with 
the  wedding  ceremony  differ  in  character  in  different 
lands,  they  all  have  the  same  purpose — to  surround 
this  important  event  with  proper  dignity  and  solemnity 
and  to  hallow  it  with  the  blessings  of  religion. 

According  to  o'ld  Jewish  practice,  the  betrothal 
(Erusin),  which  preceded  the  actual  home-taking  of 
the  bride^  (Nisuin),  was  in  itself  a  binding  compact 
from  which  neither  party  could  withdraw  without  a 
formal  divorce  being  granted  by  the  court.  In  later' 
times,  the  betrothal  ceremony  was  combined  with  the 
wedding  ceremony,  so  that  what  is  now  known  as  the 
engagement  is  merely  an  agreement  between  the  two 
parties,  carrying  no  legal  obligation.  The  engagement 
consists  of  certain  conditions  (Tenaim)  entered  into 
by  the  contracting  parties  or  their  parents  as  to  the 
marriage  settlement  (dowry — Nedunya),  the  time  set 
for  the  marriage  and  other  details  stipulated  in  a 
written  document.  This  contract  also  contains  a 
clause,  which  provides  that  in  case  either  party  de- 
sires to  withdraw  from  the  contract  before  marriage, 
that  party  must  pay  to  the  other  party  a  fine  (Kenas), 
usually  amounting  to  about  one-half  of  the  sum  of 
the  dowry  agreed  upon.  The  agreement  is  usually 
concluded  with  a  feast,  which  is  known  as  Kenas- 
Mahl.  It  is  customary  to  break  a  dish  at  this  cere- 
mony, as  well  as  at  the  wedding  ceremony,  possibly 
to  sober  the  minds  of  the  assembled  guests  and  to 

288 


Religious  Life  in  the  Hofue 


warn  them  against  excessive  hilarity.  Another  reason 
for  this  custom  is  to  remind  the  assembled  guests  of 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  of  the  abject  posi- 
tion of  Israel  in  exile,  in  accordance  with  Psalm 
137:5,  6.  (See  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  under  "Be- 
trothal," "Marriage  Ceremonies.") 

The  wedding  ceremony  proper  is  celebrated  under 
a  canopy  (Huppah),  made  up  of  four  staves  with  a 
covering  of  silk  or  satin,  often  richly  embroidered. 
This  is  symbolical  of  the  home  that  the  couple  are 
about  to  build  for  themselves.  First  the  bridegroom 
is  led  in  under  the  Huppah,  usually  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  music,  and  then  the  bride  is  brought  in.  In 
some  lands  it  is  customary  for  the  bride,  the  parents 
and  the  rest  of  the  bridal  party  to  make  seven  circuits 
around  the  bridegroom  while  the  minister  chants  the 
introductory  words  of  greeting.  The  first  blessing 
(Birchat  Erusin — Betrothal  Blessing)  is  then  pro- 
nounced by  the  officiating  minister  over  a  cup  of  wine, 
which  is  handed  to  the  groom  and  the  bride  in  turn 
to  drink  from.  The  groom  then  places  a  ring  on  the 
second  finger  of  the  right  hand  of  the  bride  and  pro- 
nounces the  following  words:  "Behold,  thou  art  con- 
secrated unto  me  by  this  ring  according  to  the  Law 
of  Moses  and  of  Israel."  This,  when  said  in  the 
presence  of  two  witnesses,  is  the  essential  portion  of 
the  wedding  compact,  according  to  Jewish  law.  The 
use  of  the  ring  is  of  more  recent  origin ;  in  early  times 
a  coin  or  any  object  of  value  was  used.  The  ring 
should  contain  no  jewels  the  value  of  which  cannot 
readily  be  estimated. 

The  Ketubah  (Marriage  Contract)  is  then  read 
aloud  by  the  officiating  minister.  In  this  contract,  the 
bridegroom  makes  a  settlement  upon  his  bride  which 
will  insure  her  against  destitution  in  the  case  of  his 
death  or  in  the  case  of  divorce.     This  is  followed  by 

289 


Appendix 


the  chanting  of  the  seven  wedding  blessings  (Birchot 
Nisuin)  over  a  cup  of  wine,  from  which  again  both 
tne  bride  and  the  groom  sip  a  portion.  The  seven 
wedding  blessings  (Sheba'  Berachot)  contain  the 
blessing  over  the  wine,  praise  of  God  as  the  Creator 
ot  the  world,  and  of  man  and  of  woman,  a  prayer  for 
the  restoration  of  Zion,  and  a  prayer  for  the  happi- 

""I'u  li  ^^u  ^^""^  ^^"P^^-  ^^^  ceremony  is  concluded 
with  the  breaking  of  a  glass  by  the  bridegroom,  after 
7m  t|^^\\sembled  guests  offer  their  good  wishes 
(Mazzal  Tob)  to  the  married  couple 

It  is  customary  for  the  bridegroom  and  the  bride 
to  fast  on  the  day  of  their  wedding.     While  it  is  the 
most  joyous  day  of  their  lives,  it  is  also  a  day  of 
serious  reflection  and  solemn  prayer.    The  bridegroom 
recites  during  the  Minhah  service  the  confession  of 
sins  (Viddui),  taken  from  the  services  of  the  Day  of 
Atonement.     After  the  wedding  ceremony  it  was  cus- 
tomary for  the  couple  to  go  to  a  separate  room,  where 
they  were  served  a  meal  especially  prepared  for  them 
Later  they  joined  the  assembled  guests  at  the  wed- 
ding banquet  where  the  bridegroom  delivered  a  learned 
discourse.     Then  the  gifts  were  bestowed  upon  the 
couple   by   the   relatives    and   the   guests    (Derashah 
Geshenk).     The  grace  recited  after  the  festive  meal 
concludes  with  the  seven  blessings  chanted  under  the 
canopy      The  same  blessings  are,  in  some  instances, 
repeated  at  other  meals  during  the  seven  days  of  re- 
joicing  or   banqueting    (Shib'at    Yeme    ha-Mishteh), 
following  the  wedding  ceremony.     Dancing  and  mer- 
rymaking   usually   accompany    the    wedding   banquet 
(see   binger.  Authorized  Prayer  Book,  pp.  298-300 
tor  the  order  of  services). 

In  more  recent  times,  anniversaries  of  the  wedding 
day  are  celebrated,  and  some  of  them,  especially  those 
marking  the  twenty-fifth  and  fiftieth  wedding  anni- 

290 


Religious  Life  in  the  Home 


versaries,    are   celebrated   with    appropriate    religious 
ceremonies. 

When  first  occupying  a  new  house,  a  feast  is  pre- 
pared and  some  Psalms  and  hymns  are  chanted  at  the 
dedication  (Hanukkat  ha-Bayit ;  see  Singer,  Author- 
ized Prayer  Book,  pp.  300-303). 

DEATH 

The  general  sentiment  prevailing  in  all  the  cere- 
monies connected  with  death,  burial  and  mourning  is 
that  of  the  hope  of  immortality.  The  belief  in  a  fu- 
ture life  is  the  sustaining  element  in  the  great  grief 
coming  to  relatives  and  friends  in  the  death  of  a  dear 
one,  and  this  belief  is  made  prominent  in  the  religious 
observances  clustering  around  such  an  event.  The 
Jew  has  been  taught  to  view  this  life  merely  as  a 
preparation  for  the  more  exalted,  more  ideal  life  in 
the  future  world.  While  the  moment  of  departure  is 
sad  and  painful,  the  anguish  is  alleviated  by  the  con- 
sciousness that  the  departed  is  about  to  enjoy  the 
blessings  of  a  purely  spiritual  existence.  The  assur- 
ance of  immortality  is,  however,  beclouded  by  the  ap- 
prehension lest  the  departed  did  not  always  fulfil  his 
duties  to  God  and  to  men  and  did  not  entirely  regu- 
late his  life  in  agreement  with  the  divine  law.  The 
feeling  that  one  will  be  unable  to  partake  fully  of  the 
blessings  of  the  future  world  unless  one's  soul  is  pure 
from  sin  (see  p.  256  ff.)  is  the  cause  of  the  sorrowful 
regrets  that  are  uttered  at  the  time  of  a  death.  The 
complete  confidence  in  the  goodness  and  mercy  of 
God  and  the  strong  faith  in  a  future  spiritual  exist- 
ence indeed  deprives  death  of  many  of  its  terrors,  but 
the  feeling  of  unworthiness  and  of  failure  to  be  fully 
prepared  for  that  life  brin^^s  to  the  Jew  the  desire  to 
become  reconciled  with  God  by  repentance  and  prayer 

291 


Appendix 


for  forgiveness  when  he  realizes  that  the  end  of  his 
hfe  IS  approaching. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  when  the  relatives  or  those 
present  at  the  sick-bed  notice  that  the  moment  of  death 
IS  near  and  that  there  is  but  Httle  hope  for  recovery 
they  urge  the  patient  to  confess  his  sins  and  to  pray 
for  God's  pardon.  There  are  special  forms  of  con- 
fessions and  prayer  provided  for  such  an  occasion  (see 
Smger,  Authorized  Prayer  Book,  p.  317).  In  order 
not  to  discourage  the  patient,  the  words  addressed  to 
him  should  conclude  with  the  remark  that  many  have 
recovered  even  after  reciting  the  confession  of  sins, 
and  that  the  act  of  confession  itself  might  cause  God's 
favor  to  turn  towards  him  so  that  he  might  be  re- 
stored to  life  and  health.  If  the  patient  is  no  longer 
^ple  to  speak,  others  should  recite  the  confession  in 
his  behalf.  The  prayer  concludes  with  the  declaration 
of  faith,  "Hear,  O  Israel,  etc." 

^  When  life  becomes  extinct,  those  present  say 
Blessed  art  Thou  ...  the  true  judge."  The 
mourners  tear  the  upper  part  of  their  garments,  as  a 
symbol  of  grief  (see  Genesis  37:34,  et  al.).  In  Orien- 
tal lands,  interment  is  usually  made  on  the  day  of 
death,  but  in  colder  climates  the  body  is  often  kept 
two  or  three  days  before  burial.  In  former  times, 
every  community  had  special  societies  (Hebrah  Ka- 
disha— "Holy  Society";  Gemilut  Hesed  shel  Emet— 
Society  for  Performing  Real  Kindness"),  whose  func- 
tion it  was  to  attend  to  the  dead  and  to  prepare  the 
body  for  burial.  The  preparation  consisted  in  bath- 
ing the  body  (Taharah— Purification)  and  dressing  it 
in  shrouds  (Tachrichin),  specially  prepared  for  the 
deceased.  This  is  now  usually  entrusted  to  an  expert 
undertaker,  although  in  many  cases,  even  now,  the 
relatives  and  friends  of  the  deceased  prefer  to  attend 
to  these  matters  themselves,  as  a  last  token  of  affection. 

292 


Religious  Life  in  the  Home 


Symbolic  of  the  belief  in  immortality,  a  light  is 
kept  burning  in  the  house  of  mourning  from  the  time 
of  death  to  the  end  of  the  prescribed  seven  days  of 
mourning  (comp.  Proverbs  20:27).  Some  keep  the 
light  kindled  for  thirty  days,  and  others  for  the  whole 
first  year.  On  the  recurring  anniversaries  of  the  date 
of  death  (Yahrzeit)  a  memorial  light  is  kept  burning 
the  whole  day. 

It  is  regarded  as  a  meritorious  act  to  follow  a  funeral 
procession  (Halvayyat  ha-Met),  some  going  as  far 
as  the  burial-ground,  others  following  only  part  of  the 
way.  At  the  cemetery,  a  prayer  (Zidduk  ha-Din)  is 
recited  by  a  minister.  In  this  prayer  the  mourners 
are  exhorted  to  resign  themselves  to  the  will  of  God, 
who  can  do  no  evil  and  whose  work  must  be  for  the 
best. 

The  period  of  mourning  begins  from  the  time  of 
burial.  The  first  seven  days  (Shibah)  are  most  rigor- 
ously observed.  The  mourners  are  seated  on  low 
stools,  and  without  shoes,  as  a  token  of  humility.  They 
are  exempt  from  exchanging  the  customary  greetings 
with  friends  who  may  come  to  ofifer  them  their  sympa- 
thy and  condolence.  It  is,  however,  highly  commenda- 
ble for  the  people  of  the  community  to  visit  the  mourn- 
ers so  as  not  to  leave  them  alone  to  brood  over  their 
grief  (comp.  Ecclesiastes  7:2).  During  these  seven  days, 
the  regular  services  are  read  in  the  house  of  mourning 
and  the  mourners  recite  the  Kaddish  (see  p.  150). 
The  mourners  abstain  during  this  period  from  all  their 
ordinary  occupations  and  keep  their  minds  on  the 
memory  of  the  departed.  In  case  of  children  mourn- 
ing for  a  deceased  parent,  the  period  of  mourning  is 
extended  to  twelve  months  from  the  time  of  burial, 
while  other  relatives  observe  only  the  first  thirty  days 
(Sheloshim)  as  days  of  mourning.  During  this  time, 
the  mourners  abstain  from  attending  festive  banquets, 

293 


Appendix 


unless  connected  with  a  religious  ceremony;  they  do 
not  visit  places  of  amusement  and  avoid  any  kind  of 
enjoyment,  especially  that  derived  from  listening  to 
music.  Children  mourning  for  a  departed  parent  are 
expected  to  attend  services  regularly  for  eleven  months 
so  that  they  may  be  able  to  recite  the  Kaddish  (see 
p.  150).  The  Kaddish  is  also  recited  by  them  on  every 
recurring  anniversary  of  the  death  of  a  parent. 

It  is  customary  to  place  a  stone  (Mazzebah)  over 
the  grave  of  the  deceased,  on  which  are  engraved  the 
name  of  the  departed  and  the  date  of  his  death.  In 
some  cases  lengthy  poems,  often  in  the  form  of  acros- 
tics, are  inscribed  on  the  stone,  in  which  the  virtues 
of  the  departed  are  set  forth  and  the  love  borne  for 
him  by  relatives  and  friends  is  described.  The  stone 
is  usually  erected  after  the  expiration  of  the  first  year 
of  mourning. 


294 


INDEX 


Ab,  Fast  of,  29,  115-118 

Ab,  Fifteenth  of.  112 

Abib,  Month  of,  25 

'Abodah,  121 

Adon  '01am,  166,  259 

Agada  and  Halachah,  244 

Agricuhure,    29,    32-33,    44-45, 

50,  60,  63 
Ahabah  Rabba,  147 
'Al  ha-Nissim,  165 
'Alenu,  154,  268 
'Ahyah,  153 
Almemar,  see  Bemah 
Am  ha-Aretz,  125 
Amen,  149 
»Amidah.  109.  140,  142,  147,  148- 

149,  153,  154 
Animals.    Clean    and    unclean, 

187-188 
Animals,    Slaiightenng  of,  see 

Shehitah 
Apocrypha,  226 
'Arabot,  63-64 
Arba'  Kanfot,  174 
'Arbit,  92,  141,  166 
Ark,  128  ^^    ^    , 

Aron,     Aron    ha-Kodesh,     see 

Ark 
'Asarah  b'Tebet,  29,  115 
'Aseret  Yeme  Teshubah,  74 
Atonement,   Day  of,  see  Yom 

Kippur 

Ba'al  Kore,  152 
Ba'al  Tokea',  76 
Bakkashot,  148  _    ^^^ 

Bar  Mizwah,   19,  69,  127,   157, 
176,  287 


Baruch  Adonai  I'Olam,  147 
Baruch   she-amar,   154 
Battim,  of  Tefillin,  175 
Bedikah,    of    animals,    190;    of 

Hamez,  39 
Behemot,    270 
Bemah,  68,  76,  129 
Benedictions,   163  ff. 
Berachot,   see   Benedictions 
Bet  ha-Keneset,  see  Synagogue 
Bet  ha-Midrash    {see   School), 

124,  126,  130 
Bet  Sefer,  125 
Bet  Talmud,  125 
Betrothal,  see  Erusin 
b'Ezrat  ha-Shem,  283 

Bible,  213  ff. ;  authority  of.  215  ; 
contents  of,  224-225;  critical 
study  of,  222-223;  book  of 
religion,  221 ;  and  science, 
221-222;  see  Revelation 

Biblical  Law,  extended,  232  ff. 

Bikkurim,  see  First  Fruits 

Birchat  Erusin,  289 

Birchot  Nisuin,  290 

Birchot  ha-Shahar,  154 

Birth,  Ceremonies  at,  284  ff. 

Biur  Hamez,   39 

Blessing  the  Children,  17 

Blood,  Prohibition  of,  190 

Borchu,  142 

Bui,  Month  of,  25 

Calendar,  24  ff. 

"Catholic  Israel,"  6;  see  Kene- 

set  Israel 
Ceremonies,  3  ff. 
Chair  of  Elijah,  285 


295 


Index 


Charity,  22,  53,  67,  91,  98,  126- 
127 

Children's  Services,  137,  163 

Christianity  and  Messianic 
Hope,  275-276 

Circumcision,  127,  178-179,  285 

Commandments,  the  Ten,  55, 
79,  154,  220 

Confession  of  Sins,  88,  92 

Confirmation,  57,  176;  see  Bar 
Mizwah 

Counting  the  'Omer,  see  Sefi- 
rah 

Covenant  of  Abraham,  see  Cir- 
cumcision 

Covering  the   Head,   140 

Creed,  see  Dogma 

Cruelty  to  Animals,  13,  186 

Cup  of  Elijah,  43 

Day  of   Atonement,  see  Yom 

Kippur 
"Day  of  the  Lord,"  269 
Day  of  Memorial,  see  Rosh  ha- 

Shanah 
Days  of  the  Week,  Names  of, 

24 
Death,  Ceremonies  at,  291  ff. 
Decalogue,  see  Commandments, 

the  Ten 
Derashah  Geshenk,  290 
Dietary  Laws,  183  ff. 
Divorce,  231-232 
Dogma,   1-2,   198,  238  fif. 

Education,  19,  22,  124-126;  see 

School 
Eighteen      Benedictions,      see 

'Amidah 
Election  of  Israel,  see  Israel 
Elijah,  43;  see  Chair  of;  Cup 

of 
Elohai  Neshamah,  166 
Emet  we-Yazzib,  147 


'Erev  Sabbath,  25 

'Erev  Yom  Tob,  25 

Erusin,  288 

Esther,  Book  of,  110;  Fast  of, 

29,  116 
Ethanim,  Month  of,  25 
Ethics  of  the  Fathers,  19 
Etrog,  63-64 
'Etz  Hayyim,  128 

Fasting,  89-90 

Fast  Days,  Minor,  114  flF. 

Fat,  prohibited,  190 

Feast  of  Ingathering,  see  Suk- 
kot 

Feast  of  Weeks,  see  Shabuot 

Feeling  and  Reason,  209-210 

Festivals,  The  Three,  29  flf.,  75 ; 
second  day  of,  27  ff. ;  Minor, 
101  ff. 

First-born,  Fast  of,  118;  Re- 
demption of,  see  Pidvon  ha- 
Ben 

First  Fruits,  Offering  of,  50  ff. 

Food,  Respect  for,  192;  vege- 
table and  animal,  187 

Four  Species  of  Vegetation,  63, 
67 

Freedom  of  the  Will,  202,  248 

Fringes,  see  Zizit 

Future  Life,  256  ft*. 

Games  on  Sabbath.  16 

Gedaliah,  Fast  of,  29,  115 

Gehenna,  150 

Gemara,  242,  243 

Gemilat  Hesed  shel  Emet,  292 

Geulah,   147 

Gevatter,  285 

Girls,  Naming  of,  179;  Edu- 
cation of,  287 

God.  196  ff. ;  attributes  of,  197- 
198;  the  creator,  203-204; 
eternal,  200;  our  judge,  248; 


296 


Index 


His    justice    and    love.    249- 

253;  and  man.  196  ff..  204  ff. ; 

omnipotent,  201  :   omniscient. 

201-202;     a    spirit.     199-200; 

unitv  of,  198-199 
Golden  Calf,  74,  76,  121 
Grace  after  Meals,  164-166 

Habdalah,  18 

Hadassim,  63-64 

Haftarah,  18.  19,  44,  56.  81,  S2, 

91,  94,  95,  152.  153,  176 
Haggadah.  42-43 
Halachah.  244 

Hallel.  27,  39.  46.  63.  67.  109 
Halvavvat  ha-Met,  293 
Hanukkah.  29.  101  ff..  165 
Haniikkat  ha-Bavit.  291 
Hasidim,  65.  105,  106 
Hatan  Bereshit.  70;  Torah.  70 
Hazzan.  69.  129,  149 
Hebra  Kadislia,  292 
Hebrew  in  public  service,  138- 

139 
Hellenism,  102-103 
High  Priest.  91.  105 
Hillul  ha-Shem.  55,  58 
Historic  Consciousness.  29  ff. 
Hodaah.   148 

Hoi  ha-Mo'ed.  43.  46.  67 
Holiness.  2,   12,   159,   173.    183, 

264-265 
Home.  Jewish.  41,  47-48.  162 
Hosha'na,  64,  67 ;  Rabba,  26,  67 

ff. 
Hospitality.  22 
Huppah,  289 

Tm  yirzeh  ha-Shem,  283 
Inspiration,  sec  Revelation 
Israel.  Election  of.  263  ff. ;  in 

Messianic   times,   269 
Isru  Hag,  25 


lesus  as  Messiah.  Jewish  view- 
point. 275-276 

Jewish  Separatism,  183  ff. 

'lows'  Oath.  94 

job.  Book  of,  252 

Jubilee  Year,  78 

ludah  Halevi.  155.  244.  278 

Judah   Maccal)ee.   107-108 

Judaism,  Definition  rif,  208; 
Sources  of,  213  ff. 

Kaddish.  142.  150.  151.  293.  294 

Kapparot,  92 

Karaites.  34.  234 

Kasher.  190 

Kedushah.  149 

Kele  Kodesh.   128 

Kenas-mahl.  288 

Keneset  Israel.  10.  135 

Keriat  Shema',  sec  Shema' 

Ketubah.  289 

Kiddush.  13.  17.  62 

Kiddush  ha-Shcm,  55 

Kiddushin,  288 

Kinot.  118,  155 

Kneeling,  sec  Kor'im 

Kol  Nidre.  92-94 

Kor'im.  95 

Kwatter,  see  Gevatter 

Lag  b'Omer.  45.  112 

Law,  Democratic  development, 

235;  not  a  burden.  2}7 ;  see 

Tradition 
Leap  Year,  26.  33 
Leviathan.  270 
Lii)ation  of  Water,  65 
Liberty,  Ideal  of,  46-47 
Lishmah,  256 
Liturgv,  sec  Praver  Book 
Lulab,'63,  64,  65,  68 

Ma'arib.  sec  'Arbit 
Maccabean   War,    102,    107    ff. ; 
see  Hanukkah 


297 


Index 


Maftir,  152 

Magen  David,   130 

Mahzor,     of     years,     26;     of 

prayers,  155 
Maimonides,  78,  241,  244,  277 
Makri,  76 
Malchuyot,  81 
Ma'oz  Zur,  109 
Marriage,   Ceremonies   of,  287 

ff. 
Mattathias,  106,  107 
Mazzah,  42,  48 
Mazzal  Tob,  290 
Mazzebah,  294 
Meat  and  Milk,  191-192 
Megillah,  111 
Memorable  dates  in  Calendar, 

28-29 
Memorial  Services,  94,^  151 
Messiah,  scion  of  David,  269; 

personal,  272-273 
Messiahs,  False,  274 
Messianic  Hope,  263   ff . ;   age, 

71,  271 
Mezuzah,  7,  173,  177,  178,  181 
Midrash,  244 
Minhag,  28,  34 
Minhah,  92,  95,  141,  290 
Minyan,  137,  142,  285 
Miracles  of  Bible,  201 
Mishnah,  241-242 
Mishneh  Torah,  243 
Mission   of   Israel,   see  Israel, 

Election  of 
Mizmorim,  154 
Mizwah,  22,  48,  62,  164,  238 
Mohel,  178,  285-286 
Molad,  27 

Months,  Names  of,  25 
Mordecai,  110 
Moses     and     other    Prophets, 

218-219,  227 
Mozae  Sabbath,  25;  Yom  Tob, 

25 


Musaf,  69,  81,  92,  95,  140,  141, 

148,  149 
Music  in  Synagogue,  130 

Naming  of  child,  178,  285 
Nationalism,   Jewish,   30,   271- 

275 
Nazirite,  65 
Nebelah,  190 
Nedunya,  288 
Ne'ilah,  92,  94,  95,  96,  141 
Ner  Tamid,  129 
New  Moon,  see  Rosh  Hodesh 
New  Year,  see   Rosh  ha-Sha- 

nah;  for  Trees,  113 
Night  Prayer,  166 
Ninth  of  Ab,  see  Ab,  Fast  of 
Nisuin,  288 

'Omer,  Counting  days  of,  see 

Sefirah 
Orah,  22 
Oral  Law,  see  Tradition 

Parashah,   18,  152 

Parochet,  128 

Paschal  Lamb,  38 

Passover,  28,  29,  31,  37  ff. 

Pentecost,   see   Shabuot 

Perpetual  Light,  see  Ner  Ta- 
mid 

Pesach,  see  Passover 

Phylacteries,  see  Tefillin 

Pidyon  ha-Ben,  179,  286 

Piyyutim,  154 

Prayer,  4,  159  ft'.;  efficacy  of, 
160  ff. 

Prayer  Book,  135,  145  ff. 

Priestly  Benediction,  149 

Prophecy,  216  ff. 

Prosbul,  6 

Proselytes,  178 

Public  Worship,  21,  134  ff. 

Purim,  29,  101,  109  ff.,  165 


298 


Inde, 


ha-Rahaman,  165 
Remnant  of  Israel,  266 
Repentance,  sec  Toshubah 
Responsa  literature,  243 
Resurrection  of  the  Dead,  269 
Retribution,    sec    Reward    and 

Punishment 
Revelation,  53  fiF.,  213  fif.,  216, 

220 
Reward   and   Punishment,   248 

f¥. 
Rezu'ah,  175 

Rosh  Hodesh,  26,  27,  34,  78 
Rosh  ha-Shanah,  28,  29,  74  ff., 

96 

Sabbath,  12  flf.;  candles,  17; 
day  of  joy,  15-16;  day  of 
worship,  17-19;  day  of  rest, 
13-15;  work  on,  231;  Hazon, 
117;  Shubah,  82 

Sabbatical  Year,  6 

Sadducees,  234 

Salting  meat,  190  » 

Sandek,  285-286 

Sanhedrin,  27 

Satan,  97 

Scholars'  Festival,  sec  Lag 
b'Omer 

School,  124  &. 

Seder,  Passover.  38.  40  ff.,  47 

Sefer  Torah,  128 

Sefirah,  44,  50 

Selihot,  74,  118,  155 

Sermon,  modern,  19 

"Servant  of  the  Lord,"  271 

Se'udah,  112 

Se'udat  Mizwah,  286 

Shabbetai   Zebi,  275 

Shabuot,  28.  29.  44.  50  ff..  112 

Shaharit.  92.  141.  166 

Shalom  Zachar.  284 

Sheba'  Rerachot,  290 

Shebahim,  148 


Sheliarim.  77 

Sheheheyanu.   109,   111 

Shehitah,    188-189 

Shekinah.  90 

Sheliah  Zibbur,  129;  sec  Haz- 
zan 

Sheloshet  Yeme  Hagl)alah,  112 

Sheloshim,  293 

Shema',  96,  146  ff..  153,  154.  163, 
166,  177.  199,  292 

Shemini  'Azeret,  69 

Shemoneh  Eszeh,  sec  'Amidah 

Sheni,  Hamishi  and  Sheni 
(Fast  Days),  118 

Shibah,   142,  293 

Shib'at  Yeme  ha-Mishtch,  290 

Shofar,  64.  67,  74,  76  ff.,  96 

Shofarot.  81 

Shohet,  189 

Shulhan  'Aruch,  243 

Shushan  Purim,  112 

Sidra,  see  Parashah 

Simhat  bet  ha-shoebah.  s.\'  Li- 
bation of  Water 

Simhat  Torah.  69-70,  152 

Sinew  that  shrank,  190-191 

Soul.  206;  additional  on  Sab- 
bath.  18 

Spices  at  Habdalah.  18 

Sukkah,  61  ff..  231 

Sukkot,  29,  60  ff. 

Symbols,    170  ff. 

Synagogue,  121  ff. ;  attendance, 
136-137;  Decoration  of.  130, 
132;  utensils  of,  127-130 

Tabernacles,  Feast  of,  sec  Suk- 
kot 
Tacbrichim.  292 
Taharah,  292 
Tal.  Praver  of.  45 
Tallit.   7'6,    173.    174 
Tallit  Katan.  sec  Arba'  Kanfot 
Talmid  Ilacham,  125 


299 


Index 


Talmud,  243 

Tammuz,  Fast  of,  29,   115-117 

Tashlik,  82 

Tearing  of  Garments,  292 

Tebet,  Fast  of,  29,  115 

Techelet,  174 

Tefillah,  see  'Amidah 

Tefillin,  7,  118,  173-178,  181 

Teki'ah,  Teki'ah  Gedolah,  77 

Tenaim,  288 

Terefah,  189-190 

Teru'ah,  77 

Teshubah,  87-88,  251 

Tetragrammaton,  95 

Thanksgiving  Day,  33 

Tikkun,  57 

Tish'ah  b'Ab,  see  Ab,  Fast  of 

Torah,  18,  213,  215,  230 

Tradition,  230  fif. 

Unetaneh  Tokef,  95 
Unleavened  bread,  39,  48 

Viddui,  290;  see  Confession  of 
Sins 


Wealth,  Responsibility  of,  52-53 
Women,     in     synagogue,     129- 

130;   absolved    from   certain 

laws,  177 


Yahrzeit,  151,  293 

Yamim  Noraim,  74 

Yishtabah.  154 

Yom  Kippur,  26,  28,  29,  74,  75, 

87  ff.,  151 
Yom  Kippur  Katan,  118 
Yom  Tob,  75,  82 
Yozer  Or,  147 


Zedakah,  53;  see  Charity 
Zekut  Abot,  79 
Zemirot,  16 
Zichronot,  81 
Zidduk  ha-Din,  293 
Ziv,  Month  of,  25 
Zizit,  147,  173,  174,  177-178,  181 
Zom    Gedaliah,    see    Gedaliah, 
Fast  of 


300 


Date  Due 

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